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A Reference Grammar of French A Reference Grammar of French is a lively, wide-ranging and original handbook on the structure of the French language. It includes new information on register, pronunciation, gender, number, foreign words (Latin, Arabic, English, Spanish, Italian), adjectives and past participles used as nouns, texting, word order, frequency of occurrence of words, and usage with all geographical names. Examples come not only from France, but also from Quebec, Belgium and Switzerland. Readers will appreciate the initial passages illustrating the grammatical features of a given chapter. Also included is a user-friendly introduction to the French language, from its Latin origins to modern times. A full glossary explains any terms that might confuse the less experienced reader, and the index leads the student through the detailed labyrinth of grammatical features. This handbook will be an invaluable resource for students and teachers who want to perfect their knowledge of all aspects of French grammar. r. e. batc he l or taught French and Spanish for forty years in the Department of Modern Languages at the University of Nottingham. He has published thirteen books, some on the French language, with second and third editions. m. chebl i-s aadi is a senior lecturer-researcher at the Universit´e Stendhal Grenoble 3. She has published many articles, books and dictionaries, and has a long experience in teaching French to foreign students, notably from the USA.
A Reference Grammar of
French R. E. BATCHELOR University of Nottingham
M. CH E B LI- S AAD I Universit´e Stendhal Grenoble 3
cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, S˜ ao Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521145114 c R. E. Batchelor and M. Chebli-Saadi 2011
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2011 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Batchelor, R. E. (Ronald Ernest) A reference grammar of French / R. E. Batchelor, M. Chebli-Saadi. p. cm. – (Reference grammars) Text in English and French. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-521-19673-4 (hardback) 1. French language – Grammar. 2. French language – Textbooks for foreign speakers. I. Chebli-Saadi, M. II. Title. PC2111.B35793 2011 448.2 421 – dc22 2011009498 ISBN 978-0-521-19673-4 Hardback ISBN 978-0-521-14511-4 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Contents / Table des mati`eres
Preface / Pr´eface Acknowledgments / Remerciements
page ix xiii
Brief introduction to the French language (with reference to the ` la French of francophone countries) / Br`eve introduction a langue franc¸aise (avec r´ef´erence au franc¸ais des pays francophones)
1
Part I 1. Register / Le registre
15
2. Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation / L’alphabet, l’orthographe, la prononciation 3. Written accents / Les accents ´ ecrits
25 71
4. Punctuation, font, upper and lower case / La ponctuation, la police de caract`eres, les majuscules et minuscules 5. Agreement / L’accord
76 90
Part II 6. The definite article / L’article d´efini
101
7. The indefinite article / L’article ind´efini
110
8. The partitive article / L’article partitif
113
9. Gender / Le genre
119
10. Number (singular and plural) / Le nombre (singulier et pluriel)
156
Part III 11. Verbs and moods of verbs / Les verbes et les modes des verbes
177
12. Infinitive, perfect infinitive / L’infinitif, l’infinitif pass´e
183
13. Present tense / Le pr´esent
190
14. Perfect tense and agreement of the past participle / Le pass´e compos´e et l’accord du participe pass´e
195 v
vi
Contents
15. Irregular past participles / Les participes pass´es irr´eguliers
209
16. Past participles used as nouns / Les participes pass´es consid´er´es comme noms
214
17. Ablative absolute (absolute use of the past participle) / L’ablatif absolu (usage absolu du participe pass´e)
224
18. Verb + infinitive when verb + that + subordinate clause is used in English / Verbe + infinitif lorsqu’un verbe + that + proposition subordonn´ee s’emploie en anglais
229
19. Pluperfect tense / Le plus-que-parfait
233
20. Past anterior tense / Le pass´e ant´erieur
238
21. Imperfect tense / L’imparfait
239
22. Preterit tense / Le pass´e simple
246
23. Contrasts between the perfect tense, preterit tense and imperfect tense / Les contrastes entre le pass´e compos´e, le pass´e simple et l’imparfait
250
24. Future tense / Le futur
255
25. Future perfect tense / Le futur ant´erieur
260
26. Conditional tense / Le conditionnel
262
27. Conditional perfect tense / Le conditionnel pass´e
267
28. Progressive tense, present participle, gerund / Le temps progressif, le participe pr´esent, le g´erondif
271
29. Imperative mood / Le mode imp´eratif
278
30. Irregular verbs / Les verbes irr´eguliers
289
31. Verbs of the –er type with orthographic changes / Les verbes en –er avec modifications orthographiques
303
32. Transitive and intransitive verbs / Les verbes transitifs et intransitifs
308
33. Reflexive verbs / Les verbes pronominaux
314
34. Passive voice / La voix passive
325
35. Defective verbs / Les verbes d´efectifs
333
36. Modal verbs / Les auxiliaires modaux
339
37. Ellipsis of verbs in main and subordinate clauses / L’ellipse du verbe dans la proposition principale et la proposition subordonn´ee
350
38. Idiomatic uses of aller, avoir, ˆetre, faire and prendre / Les expressions idiomatiques concernant aller, avoir, eˆtre, faire et
prendre
356
Contents
39. Impersonal verbs / Les verbes impersonnels
vii
376
40. Verbs of perception + infinitive or a subordinate clause / Les verbes de perception + infinitif ou une proposition subordonn´ee
383
41. Subordinate clauses of time / La proposition subordonn´ee de temps
386
42. Complex verbal expressions / Les expressions verbales complexes 391 43. Verbs of movement / Les verbes de mouvement
402
Part IV 44. Subjunctive mood / Le mode du subjonctif
409
Part V 45. Personal pronouns and pronouns as objects / Les pronoms personnels, les pronoms comme objets
435
46. The pronouns en and y / Les pronoms en et y
452
47. Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns / Les adjectifs possessifs et les pronoms possessifs
460
48. Possessive adjectives, definite articles and usage with parts of the body and with clothes / Les adjectifs possessifs, les articles d´efinis et l’usage concernant les parties du corps et les vˆetements 49. Relative pronouns / Les pronoms relatifs
467 472
50. Interrogative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs / Les pronoms, les adjectifs et les adverbes interrogatifs 51. Inversion / L’inversion
484 494
Part VI 52. Adjectives / Les adjectifs
505
53. Adverbs / Les adverbes
522
54. Comparative adjectives, adverbs and nouns / Les adjectifs, les adverbes et les noms comparatifs
540
55. Superlative adjectives, adverbs and nouns / Les adjectifs, les adverbes et les noms superlatifs
548
Part VII 56. Prepositions / Les pr´epositions
557
viii
Contents
Part VIII 57. Demonstrative adjectives / Les adjectifs d´emonstratifs
609
58. Demonstrative pronouns / Les pronoms d´emonstratifs
613
59. Indefinite pronouns and adjectives, and tout as an adverb / Les pronoms et les adjectifs ind´efinis, et tout comme adverbe
618
Part IX 60. Conjunctions / Les conjonctions
629
61. Negation / La n´egation
635
62. Numbers, time, measurements / Les nombres, le temps, les mesures 63. Word order / L’ordre des mots
644 658
Part X 64. Names of continents, countries, regions, states, provinces, rivers, mountains, volcanoes and their uses / Les noms de continents, pays, r´egions, ´ etats, provinces, fleuves, montagnes, volcans et leur usage 65. Proper names / Les noms propres
675 686
66. Foreign words and borrowings / Les mots d’origine ´ etrang`ere et les mots d’emprunt
692
67. Differences in frequency of similar words in the two languages / La diff´erence en fr´equence d’usage dans les deux langues
700
68. Miscellaneous: truncation, interjections, fillers, transition words, forms of address, figures of speech, doublets, informal / colloquial language and slang, backslang / Divers : la troncation, les interjections, les formules de remplissage, les mots de transition, les formules de politesse, les figures de rh´etorique, les doublets, le langage familier / populaire et l’argot, le verlan
703
Part XI Verb tables / Tableaux des conjugaisons Glossary / Glossaire Bibliography / Bibliographie General index / Index g´en´eral Subjunctive index / Index du mode subjonctif
719 760 773 776 784
Preface / Pr´eface
The study of French grammar offers us a striking penetration into the national mind of France and into the French speaker’s sense of cultural identity and civilization. The year 2009 witnessed a passionate, national debate, launched by President Sarkozy, on the significance of being French. An integral contribution to this debate was made by a French economist who distinguishes below one feature above all others in the pursuit of national identity and consciousness: the French language with all its anomalies of pronunciation, spelling and grammatical inconsistencies. We make no apologies for quoting in full his most lucid article on what it means to be French. The emphasis in three sentences has been added by the authors. Le billet d’Alain Minc Essayiste A chacun son identit´e nationale Point n’est besoin d’aller dans les pr´efectures pour s’interroger sur l’identit´e nationale. C’est un jeu auquel chacun peut, seul, se livrer. Pour ma part, je ne crois plus a` la vieille ritournelle de Renan : « La nation, un pl´ebiscite quotidien. » Quand l’Allemagne e´ tait imp´eriale, la Grande-Bretagne aristocratique, l’Italie monarchique, le « pl´ebiscite » sur nos valeurs e´ galitaires et lib´erales avait un sens. Aujourd’hui, les Occidentaux partagent tous les mˆemes id´eaux de libert´e et de contrat social. Il n’y a plus, de ce point de vue, d’exception franc¸aise. Qu’est-ce qui fonde la France ? Une m´emoire, une culture ? Dans un univers mondialis´e et boulevers´e par Internet, ces traits s’estompent. La racine de notre identit´e, c’est, aujourd’hui, a` mes yeux, la langue. Le franc¸ais est notre bien commun ; il nous diff´erencie ; il sous-tend un esprit, une mani`ere de penser, une fac¸on d’ˆetre. Lui seul nous distingue des Allemands ou des Espagnols. Mais si nous faisons nˆotre cette id´ee, il est alors imp´eratif de pr´eserver la langue comme un tabernacle, de lui garantir un enseignement de qualit´e, de la faire e´ voluer sans lui porter atteinte, de conserver ses bizarreries, y compris orthographiques ou grammaticales, d’en faire notre territoire de l’esprit. R´efl´echissez. Y a-t-il un autre e´ l´ement qui nous r´eunisse avec une telle force ? Aucun. Directsoir No. 650, mardi 24 novembre 2009, p. 2 ix
x
Preface
This volume is designed to provide a clear, practical and comprehensive guide to the grammar of the French language. The principal aim of the book is to be both as complete and as straightforward as possible, avoiding much technical terminology that risks clouding the understanding of the linguistic processes of the French language. It provides a point of reference for any serious student or teacher who seeks information on the broad sweep of French grammar and its intricate detail, and who has already covered its basic structures. It hopes to provide an instrument for all those attracted by the study and mastery of French grammar by supplying close and detailed guidance on the numerous linguistic elements associated with pronunciation, alphabet, register or levels of language, gender, number, syntax, parts of speech, word order, use of verbs, and the varieties within each of these elements. Its ambition is to demonstrate that, although French is not identical in all places, any more than English retains an easy global homogeneity, it is a possible and desirable vehicle for foreign students of the language in communicating across frontiers and establishing a meaningful dialogue with numerous peoples who have inherited a fruitful and powerful method of expression. All grammatical features are accompanied with a wealth of natural and attested examples. These examples are often presented in the feminine form. The text avoids sexist bias and reaches out to females and males alike. Many of the chapters start with, or/and include within them, a small piece of French illustrating the function and use of the grammatical features under consideration. The relevant points are highlighted in bold. The creative skill of one of the authors (Dr. Malliga Saadi) comes into play here. Inevitably, there exists an artificial element in these pieces, but an elegant and relevant creativity is guaranteed. It may be contended that some of the subsections in Part X, such as proper names or foreign and indigenous terms, do not correspond to grammatical structures, but it is considered that they would be of great usefulness in the articulation of these structures. It should be emphasized that constant cross-referencing will help the reader gain a clear and more rounded picture of all the grammatical points. A few grammatical points are developed in two different chapters, so that there is here some very slight overlapping. Needless to add, treatment of the same feature is angled differently in these separate chapters. American English takes precedence over British English. American spelling is preferred to its English counterpart but this should present no problem whatever to the non-American learner. Where there could be lexical misinterpretation, both American and British terms appear side by side. Translations are sometimes provided for complete sentences, and occasionally for individual words, when the meaning is not clear. Otherwise,
Preface
xi
no translation appears. Furnishing a maximum amount of information on the French language had to be weighed against the systematic inclusion of translations which would have reduced the available space. As far as the vocabulary goes, modern dictionaries carry out this function more than adequately. The book contains a general glossary which will help in understanding any semi-technical grammatical expressions that may arise. Regular use of this glossary will assist in understanding the terms appearing in the text. It is so much easier to come to grips with the grammar of a foreign language if an insight is gained into the way in which even the English language functions. The text also has a comprehensive index designed for locating any particular point of grammar. The book is up-to-date. For instance, it contains a section on the problems of gender now that females are working in fields once inaccessible to them. Compound nouns, once unusual in French, except for just a few, are springing up like mushrooms, and the text pays serious attention to them. Register differences are not ignored. A regular preoccupation is the variation in colloquial or spoken language, as opposed to the written word, and a simple system of R1, R2, R3 is used, designating colloquial, standard and elevated or literary language respectively. It should be borne in mind that the present grammar does not simply offer a presentation of the standard language but, much more, it attempts to examine the state of the French language, a quite different preoccupation. In other words, we are not merely concerned with perfect grammatical accuracy promoted by the purist but also with varieties of register which any serious student will encounter at every turn. Where there are colloquial constructions that are unacceptable to many, and which could be clearly incorrect, this is indicated by the R1 assignation. One of the authors’ aims is to avoid the “dry as dust” mentality, so excoriated by Hemingway (this is his quote), that risks blighting so many grammars of whatever language, and alienating the student or teacher. Numerous references of a cultural, historical, literary, artistic, geographical, scientific and even biblical nature combine with a lighter touch involving play on words, humor, witticisms and a colorful range of expression intended to invest the work with an attractive, engaging and unique style. References are also made to other Romance languages (Italian and Spanish) to offer a more rounded, comprehensive picture. To some extent, it is grammar in context. Such an approach does not detract in any way from the intellectual rigor of the work. The aim is to combine the serious study of French grammar with an exploration of the way in which French speakers view the world and of their understanding and expression of certain values. As Alex Taylor says in his Bouche b´ee tout ou¨ıe . . . ou comment tomber amoureux des langues (2010, pp. 234–235): “Si l’on veut que les gens
xii
Preface
apprennent les langues, il faut cesser de les pr´esenter comme une suite laborieuse de r`egles grammaticales . . . mais plutˆ ot comme une fac¸on de voir le monde, forg´ees par les exp´eriences et les valeurs uniques de tous ceux qui les parlent.” The study of grammar is not a sterile and disaffecting pursuit. It does not exist in a vacuum. Grammatical accuracy in French will provide an entry into a splendid and admirable culture and civilization, the study of which will lead to an enrichment and flowering of one’s personality. It is the hope and expectation of the authors that a firm and fluent command of French, and its grammar, will form part of a felicitous and fertile relationship between the worlds of English and French speakers.
Acknowledgments / Remerciements
An indispensable contribution to this volume was made by two Frenchspeaking university colleagues whose willingness to be submitted to a merciless bombardment of questions is only equaled by their passion for the English language: Mme Anne-Marie Antonouris and M. Philippe Lano¨e. The latter carries a splendid and unrivaled Ast´erix baggage. One of the authors would also like to thank for the first time Helen Barton, commissioning editor, who has encouraged him unflaggingly over the years in his numerous ventures with Cambridge University Press. Finally, this volume has benefited immeasurably from the excellent contribution made by our copy editor, Leah Morin, whose splendid sense of accuracy and awareness of the intricacies of French grammar have provided the text with its final polish.
xiii
Brief introduction to the French language (with reference to the French of francophone countries) / Br`eve ` la langue franc¸aise introduction a (avec r´ef´erence au franc¸ais des pays francophones) French is the official language of twenty-nine independent states and is spoken, to a greater or lesser extent, in fifty-one or fifty-two countries.1 Most recent calculations suggest that over 200 million use it as a first or second language. Although not as diffuse as English, but certainly more so than Spanish, since it enjoys currency on five continents and Spanish 1
Henriette Walter suggests fifty-two in Le franc¸ais d’ici, de l` a, de l` a-bas (1998, p. 135). The figure 1 beside a country indicates the authors’ serious reservations about any validity over claims for francophonie for this country. The figure 2 beside a country indicates that French is spoken by a percentage of the population, and this could vary from country to country, who use it as a mother tongue, or as a major second language: Albanie 1, Belgique, Belgique (communaut´e francophone), B´enin, Brunswick 1, Bulgarie 1, Burkina Faso, Burundi 2, Cambodge 1, Canada: Nouveau, Cap-Vert 1, Centrafrique, Comores, Congo, Congo (R´epublique d´emocratique = ´gypte 1, France, Gabon, Guin´ee, RDC), Cˆ ote d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Dominique 1, E ´quatoriale, Ha¨ıti, Laos 1, Liban 2, Luxembourg, Mac´edoine Guin´ee-Bissau 1, Guin´ee E 1, Madagascar, Mali, Maroc 2, Maurice, Mauritanie, Moldavie 1, Niger, Pologne 1, Roumanie 1, Rwanda 2, Sainte-Lucie 2, S˜ ao Tom´e et Principe 1, S´en´egal, Seychelles 2, Suisse 2, Tchad, Togo, Tunisie 2, Vanuatu, Viˆetnam, Za¨ıre. There exists some residue of French in countries like Cambodia, Vietnam and Lebanon as a result of the French presence in their colonial past. Algeria provides an interesting case, since, following independence in 1962, French was disowned and, to some extent, replaced by its rival English, with the result that, since the 1980s, numerous Algerian students have pursued their university careers in the UK, USA and Canada, and not in France. Political choices are visible here. However, French has experienced a resurgence of interest, and one may calculate that 30 percent of Algerians speak and write French. Nevertheless, this list does not include the following, and there seems to be no understandable reason for this: Quebec, Guyana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Monaco, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, and Mayotte where French is an official language. This may well be because some of these countries, islands and territories form part of metropolitan France. One could also cite in this category characterized by French as an official language: the ˆIles Anglo-Normandes (Channel Islands), the Val d’Aoste (Aosta Valley) and Louisiane (Louisiana) in the USA.
1
2
A Reference Grammar of French
only on three (the Americas, Europe and restricted parts of West Africa), it provides a form of expression not only for France and peripheral countries, principalities or areas such as Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Andorra and Saarland, but also for numerous countries in sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa (most frequently called the Maghreb), for Quebec where 80 percent of the population speak French as their first language, the West Indies (notably Martinique and Guadeloupe), Guyana, Madagascar, Haiti, Tahiti, Reunion, Mauritius, parts of Louisiana, and New Caledonia. It still has some lingering cultural value in Vietnam and Cambodia, which formed part of the old French Indochina Empire. A global means of communication, it is therefore a language to be reckoned with. How did the French language acquire such a privileged and exalted position, having, like its sister Romance language Spanish, and the North European English language, both of which have challenged it over the centuries for primacy of place, set out on its universal path from relatively inauspicious beginnings? Its most distant source lies in the group of Indo-European, or Asian-European, languages which gave rise to Greek, then to Latin which splintered itself into the so-called Romance, or NeoLatin, languages of French, Provenc¸al, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian. Each of these languages, or sublanguages, like Valencian (related to Castilian Spanish and very similar to Catalan), Corsican (related to Tuscany Italian) or Galician (which is very close to Portuguese), reflects the final development of Vulgar Latin, a popular and spoken form of Classical Latin associated with Virgil, Caesar and Ovid. Vulgar Latin itself was the lingua franca spoken in different areas of the Roman Empire, and as this lingua franca slowly broke free from a central stem, it disintegrated and followed the disparate and diffuse paths of Roman administrators, colonists, soldiers and traders. All Romance languages are really the result of a kind of cr´eolisation (a linguistic process involving two separate communities, one of which is European), to use the current French term. As far as France is concerned, or Gaul as it was known in the early centuries of the Christian era, Vulgar Latin split into two main strands: langue d’o¨ıl in the north and langue d’oc in the south. Similar to the languages of Italy and Spain, the langue d’oc retained much of the sound system derived from Vulgar Latin and entrenched itself to the south of a line running approximately from Bordeaux in western France to Grenoble in the east. It maintained the Latin vowels intact to a large extent, while dropping consonants. A similar phenomenon occurred in Spain and Italy, especially in the latter where the modern Italian language is distinguished by the almost total disappearance of consonants from the end of all words, whether they be verbs (andare), nouns (ragazzo) or adjectives (inglese). With respect to the langue d’o¨ıl, and this is our chief interest, the first text that is clearly not Latin, but still in dialect form, is the Serments de Strasbourg (Strasbourg Oaths, 842). This composition of distinctly non-Latin includes not
Brief introduction to the French language
3
only the first piece of so-called French, in a dialect impossible to locate, but also the first piece of German, drawn up by Charles le Chauve (Charles the Bald) on the French side and Louis le Germanique (Louis the Germanic) on the German side, both committing themselves to an alliance against Lothaire I (Lothair), the Frankish emperor. However, the first recognizable literary creation in langue d’o¨ıl is La Cantil`ene or S´equence de Sainte Eulalie (880), which eulogizes in song the martyrdom of Saint Eulalia in Spain in approximately the year 304. The langue d’o¨ıl expanded rapidly outwards across northern France in the thirteenth century, having already started to gain ground on an international scale in the eleventh century with the successful invasion of England by William the Conqueror in 1066, and here French, with its wider administrative functions, held sway in the courts of England until 1350, with the result that two languages cohabited in England for hundreds of years: French and Anglo-Saxon. The doublets beef (from French bœuf ) and cow, pork (from French porc) and pig, and mutton (from French mouton) and sheep are pertinent illustrations of the two parallel languages in the England of the Middle Ages. The linguistic differences reflect the social gaps: French food on the table provides a French word emanating from the ruling class while the animals tended in the fields maintain their Anglo-Saxon linguistic origin. In the thirteenth century, while French was starting to loosen its grip in England, the opposite was happening elsewhere in Europe. In the Comt´e de Savoie (between France and Alpine Italy), one comes across a document written in French in 1253 (see Condeescu 1975, pp. 168–169), while in 1265 French became the official language of the realm of Naples, superseding the Toscan version of Italian, since the said realm was acquired by the counts of Anjou. Some Italian writers favored French as their mode of expression, witness Brunetto Latini who, between 1260 and 1266, drew up Li livres dou tr`esor (Treasure Books), during his exile in France. The wondrous, captivating adventures of Marco Polo, of Venice provenance, found expression in the French language (Le livre de Marco Polo), and attracted numerous translations in Europe during the Middle Ages. Certain watershed dates serve to highlight and explain the intense attachment the French nation feels and nurtures for its language, and it seems advantageous to recall them. The year 1539 provides a landmark in that it presided over the drawing up of the document (ordonnance) of VillersCotterˆets which was not the fruit of competition between Latin and all the regional languages but rather the result of the langue d’o¨ıl gaining ascendancy over all the remaining vernacular languages. Latin was no longer a choice in this case. Even before this date, in 1490, Charles VIII had decreed that all judicial inquiries and trial proceedings should take place either in French or in a regional language. Furthermore, 1512 witnesses the act of Louis XII who had pronounced a decree against the use of Latin, pointing out
4
A Reference Grammar of French
that such a promulgation relegated Latin to a secondary position, although it still survived most energetically in the Catholic liturgy, a tradition that still lingers to this very day in a somewhat idiosyncratic way in the activities of the late Monseigneur Lefebvre, in western France. Again, Franc¸ois Ier had, himself, confirmed in 1531 that all legal proceedings should take place “en vulgaire et langage du pays.” Throughout all this insistence on the domination of the vernacular over Latin, the langue d’o¨ıl profited at the expense of all the other regional languages, including, naturally enough, the langue d’oc. The langue d’o¨ıl had thus finally overcome its southern counterpart, the langue d’oc, by the beginning of the sixteenth century, so that the flourishing French Renaissance enjoyed an expansive, prestigious medium at the hands of Rabelais, Montaigne, Ronsard, Marot, Du Bellay and Calvin. The Renaissance period enabled the French language to acquire such a privileged status that the French nation likes to think it is unique. Various cultural bodies have watched over the French language either to preserve its integrity against the hegemony of the latterly ubiquitous English language, or to deliberate on its development, notably lexical. These bodies include the strictly traditional Acad´emie franc¸aise, created nearly 400 years ago in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu, and whose function was, and still is, to promote a bon usage or “correct” use of the French language. One of its statutes recommends: “travailler avec tout le soin et toute la diligence ` donner des r`egles certaines a ` notre langue et a ` la rendre pure, possibles a ´eloquente et capable de traiter les arts et les sciences.” The apogee of this purifying endeavor was reached in le grand si`ecle, under Louis XIV, when the playwright Racine formulated a chasteness and immaculateness of language unrivaled to this day. In the seventeenth century, the often weekly assemblies called salons, especially those of Mme de Lafayette, Mme de Rambouillet, Mme de S´evign´e and Mlle de Scud´ery, were most instrumental in crystallizing the bon usage; these were not only literary circles where the art of the novel was discussed in the form of the now less well-known L’astr´ee, Cyrus and Cl´elie, but also c´enacles composed exclusively of men, like the grammarians Valentin Conrart (1603–1675) and Vaugelas (1585–1650), whose Remarques sur la langue franc¸aise (1647) set forth the linguistic principles for le bon usage. Authors like the two cited aimed to “improve” the language and called upon the Acad´emie franc¸aise to preside over its destiny. Indeed, Vaugelas, according ` la to the P`ere Bouhours, “devint une autorit´e en mati`ere de bon usage, a ` la ville.” The salons and the function of the Acad´emie offered cour comme a proof that France had acquired a conscience in matters artistic, and this explains why literature, art and music are regarded as topics of national concern. The influence of the Acad´emie on the language led to a flourishing of French among English writers and artists who luxuriated in an influx of French vocabulary, particularly in the eighteenth century, similar
Brief introduction to the French language
5
to the reverse contemporary trend which provokes much indignation in high places of modern France. There has even been a serious governmental attempt in recent years to sanction and financially punish firms that allow the use of English in preference to the use of French. The loi Toubon of August 4, 1994 related to the defense of the French language made this very clear: franglais is not a practice to be encouraged. Italian and Spanish are suffering equally from this linguistic invasion, notwithstanding the protestation of purists. The golden age of French literature experienced, and even rejoiced in, what writers considered the perfect linguistic tool that provided it with a beauty, harmony and rhythm that Conrart and Vaugelas promoted with their work on the minutiae of the vocabulary and grammatical constructions, preparing the austerely and highly intellectual medium in which Corneille and Racine were able to express themselves. While the eighteenth century saw passionate debates centered on the fundamental questions of the existence of God, the reorganization of society, and the exploration of the world and universe, all encapsulated in the Encyclop´edie, purisme or linguistic purity still held sway. In his Journal de Savoie (1817), Georges Marie Raymond (1769–1835), member of the Acad´emie de Savoie, contributed a regular column on regional French. In this Journal, the author wrote less to raise awareness of the French language than to offer prescriptive rules on le bon usage, suggesting expressions, even Italianisms, to avoid. The French Revolution gave a new thrust to the expansion of the French language, carrying it beyond the frontiers of the Hexagone, in the wake of Napoleon’s conquests in Italy and central Europe. French followed in the footsteps of the colonisers and bequeathed to much of the world, from Black and North Africa (the latter known as the Maghreb in French) to Quebec, the Pacific and the Caribbean, a polished tool of linguistic identity. This explains why modern similarly crusading groups such as the Haut comit´e de la langue franc¸aise, created by Charles de Gaulle in 1966, have arisen not just in France, but also in Belgium (Service de la langue franc¸aise) and Quebec (Office qu´eb´ecois de la langue franc¸aise). It also explains the Conseils sup´erieurs de la langue franc¸aise de France, de Belgique et du Qu´ebec which, while offering more liberal views than the Acad´emie franc¸aise, all serve to protect and confirm the language as a unit and mode of utterance as a contribution to the world’s intellectual achievement. It must be stated at this very early stage (and we shall return to this point on numerous occasions throughout this introduction) that, with respect to the rise of French, and indeed all the Romance languages, following the fragmentation of Vulgar Latin, the lesson is very clear and unequivocal. There exists an edifying principle at stake here, and it is a principle that risks running counter to the traditional French adherence to the purity of their language. French, like Spanish and Italian, is essentially a modified, even,
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A Reference Grammar of French
dare one say it, debased form of Latin. A type of expression finally considered faulty or incorrect in Latin slowly generated new patterns, culturally exciting and linguistically attractive, which ultimately resolved themselves into modern French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian. The tension between the spoken and written word, in the aftermath of Rome’s declining empire and the conquering intrusion of Germanic tribes, both approximately in the fifth century, led to the domination of the former over the latter. What is considered a solecism or linguistic incongruity at one stage of a language’s development may be construed as the standard for tomorrow. As an illustration, the colloquial and even journalistic apr`es qu’elle soit arriv´ee, frequently censured by the purists, may one day oust the more written form apr`es qu’elle est arriv´ee, or at least achieve a linguistic parity with it, just as C’est les meilleures voitures may one day be considered as equally acceptable as Ce sont les meilleures voitures. Similarly, one wonders how long it will take for He came with William and I to gain acceptability alongside He came with William and me, even though the pronoun I can only be, in a contemporary setting, the subject of a sentence. Moreover, if the opinions of purists had prevailed in the desire to keep French in a uniform state, we would still be saying and writing “esp´erer de faire quelque chose” (see Pascal 1950, p. 84) instead of esp´erer faire quelque chose, and pronouns in the following structure would still be preceding the auxiliary verb: “je ne te les pourrais pas dire de bouche” (p. 84), instead of je ne pourrais pas te les dire. Similarly Voltaire, a century later, writes in Candide: “Comment donc ! dit-il, en pouvez-vous douter ?” instead of pouvez-vous en douter ? (1988, p. 66). The colorful M´emoires d’outre-tombe of Chateaubriand uses this construction on every page of what is a lengthy work by any standard. In the ironic, jocular style of Les caves du Vatican (1914, p. 13), Gide writes: “mais pour simple qu’il d´esirˆ at sa cravate, . . . encore la voulait-il choisir.” French literature of the Middle Ages saw such a construction as standard, just as it is common currency in both contemporary Italian and Spanish. Furthermore, the past historic would still be in colloquial usage in French, and again just as it is common currency in both Italian and Spanish these days. Some grammarians increasingly realize that their role, even responsibility, in the scrutiny and analysis of language consists less in prescribing and preserving norms, and, in the case of the French language, in arbitrarily imposing the Parisian variety or francien mode of expression, as it once was in the ˆIle de France, on the rest of France and the numerous other French-speaking countries, than on observing its development, and actively contributing to this development. It should be added parenthetically here that, according to some commentators on the French language, notably Belgian linguists, francien was not the only form of French available. Resistance to change has been a mark of the francien variety of the French language. (A parallel resistance to change may also be viewed in the
Brief introduction to the French language
7
attitudes of certain, but ever diminishing numbers of, English speakers of English in relation to American speakers who often say “different than” or “different to,” rather than “different from.” It should be said in passing that Jane Austen, for instance in Pride and Prejudice, frequently resorts to “different to.”) What is undeniable is that the cultured inhabitants of a variety of Frenchspeaking countries speak a very similar language, which makes them all intelligible to each other. Indeed, their grammatical discourses are remarkably similar. A consistent and conspicuous feature of the French language is that, although any endeavor to embrace the French of France in the same context as that of an African country, or of the Maghreb, Quebec, Martinique and so on, may appear futile, its grammar is broadly consistent everywhere. Notwithstanding the numerous and inevitable lexical differences, the French grammar of the New Caledonian Francis Carco in L’homme traqu´e or J´esus la caille differs little from that of the Algerian-born Albert Camus’s La peste, or again from that of the Senegalese poet L´eopold Senghor in his collections ´ Ethiopiques and Nocturnes. The French of Marguerite Yourcenar, of Belgian descent, and the very first female to be admitted to the male bastion of the Acad´emie franc¸aise in 1981, corresponds to grammatical criteria (see M´emoires d’Hadrien), just as does that of Marguerite Duras who was born in French Indochina (see Moderato cantabile and L’amant), or even that of the Belgian Nobel Prize winner Maurice Maeterlinck in his plays and Essais, notably La vie des abeilles. The prolific Belgian compatriot of Maeterlinck, Michel de Ghelderode, has acquired fame in the Frenchspeaking world with such plays as the notorious Fastes d’enfer, while the Algerian-born novelist Assia Djebar has followed in the footsteps of Marguerite Yourcenar by being admitted to the Acad´emie franc¸aise in 2005. Last but not least, the Senegalese novelist Abasse Ndione, who publishes regularly with the prestigious publishing house Gallimard (see the novels Ramaka and Mb¨ek¨e), contributes such articles as Temps de disette au S´en´egal to Lib´eration (August 9/10, 2008). The list is endless. The examples of the authors cited above illustrate the worldwide diffusion of the French language which gave rise to the phenomenon known as francophonie, difficult to translate in one word but in a paraphrase: the French-speaking world, or a worldwide language. The term francophonie, born in 1880, stimulated discussions at a variety of sommets de la francophonie, as Henriette Walter calls them. It was given a considerable impulse by the Senegalese president L´eopold Sedar Senghor, the Tunisian president Habib Bourguiba and Habib Diori who, in 1962, launched a constitution for a francophone community. The other significant landmark in the francophone universe occurred in 1986 when a large number of countries were represented at a Paris conference: Conf´erence des chefs d’´etat et de gouvernements ayant en commun l’usage du franc¸ais. The fifty-two countries, referred to at the beginning of this introduction and listed at
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A Reference Grammar of French
the end, apparently subscribe to this common linguistic and even ideological ideal, if Les correspondances du minist`ere des Affaires ´etrang`eres (1998) is to be believed. However, the imagination has to be stretched when, in some curious manner, countries such as Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Moldavia, Spanish-speaking Equatorial Guinea or islands like English-speaking Dominica in the Caribbean are included in this list. Justification must lie in the tenuous relationship between, for instance, the creole French in Dominica and the nearby islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique. Despite this stricture, French has survived strikingly well in many parts of the world in the face of an ever intrusive and galloping English. An excellent case in point is the island of Mauritius where the official language is precisely English but, paradoxically, 60 percent of the population speak French as their mother tongue, while also speaking English, creole (a mixture of eighteenth-century French and seamen’s French, with a contribution from parts of Africa and Madagascar) and Hindi. French and English vie with each other on Mauritian radio and television. French has experienced a resurgence in Algeria where, after the declaration of independence from their French colonial masters in 1962 and the concomitant rejection of French in favor of English, it is estimated that 30 percent of Algerians now speak French as their mother language, and 30 percent use French occasionally, and this despite Algeria’s failure to become involved in the community of francophone countries, notwithstanding Assia Djebar’s election to the Acad´emie franc¸aise. Similar figures may be obtained for Morocco where the novelist Tahar Ben Jelloun won the Prix Goncourt in 1987 for his La nuit sacr´ee. One could pursue the enumeration of these statistics in relation to Black Africa, Quebec, Guyana and so on, but suffice it to refer to the list at the beginning of this introduction to observe the full extent of francophonie. In all these francophone countries, it is wise to distinguish between the French spoken by the cultured and well-educated classes, and that spoken by the popular strata of society where formal instruction is not so evident. Furthermore, the syntax, if not the pronunciation or vocabulary, of the French spoken by the well-tutored social groups in, say, Algeria, Reunion, Mauritius, Senegal, Quebec or Guyana, to take just a few countries selected at random across the globe, is conspicuously uniform, and for this we doubtless have to consider the centrifugal power of metropolitan France, contested by many, and certain well-respected dictionaries such as Le petit Robert, Le petit Larousse and the Littr´e, in tandem with the Acad´emie franc¸aise. Such a uniformity facilitates the establishment of an all-embracing French grammar. It should be added that, whereas the French of the Hexagone has retained a high degree of homogeneity, in whichever francophone country one finds oneself, the local language, dialect or creole differs markedly and inevitably from one country to another, since different amorphous linguistic, social, geographical and political forces are incessantly at work.
Brief introduction to the French language
9
It should also be pointed out that, although the linguistic hegemony enjoyed by French is unrivaled in France, there do exist other languages that coexist alongside it. A quotation from Graham Robb’s The Discovery of France proves this very point. For all the wide variation in statistics, he asserts: “the various forms of Occitan have at least two million speakers, Alsatian 1.5 million, Breton half a million, Corsican 280, 000, Basque and Flemish 80, 000 each (in France), Francoprovenc¸al 70, 000. Figures for major dialects like Auvergnat, Norman and Picard are unavailable, though they can still be heard in daily use” (2007, p. 65). Needless to add, the speakers of these minority languages have the admirable but often unrecognized versatility to express themselves in the national tongue, although in some cases their accent seems disconcerting to speakers of “standard” French. A shift in emphasis on the appreciation of language and its assessment in the context of the constantly evolving written and spoken word has taken place in recent years. It no longer behoves commentators of language to establish patterns and models according to which all expression is judged, or provide a code of syntax and speech, or strict linguistic analysis, so that we should all unvaryingly write and speak like the creations of Shakespeare or Cervantes or Racine. A grammar is no longer required to be prescriptive but rather to put before the public what kind of language most people agree upon. Encouraging us to speak like books is manifestly not an activity to be promoted. This still constitutes a danger for the members of the Acad´emie franc¸aise whose hidebound pronouncements persist in alienating large sections of the French-speaking public. Moreover, creative writers exhibit an increasingly restive attitude toward the Acad´emie, to the extent that a growing number of seats remain stubbornly vacant.2 This explains why a language in the constant process of change, particularly with respect to pronunciation and vocabulary, should not be subject 2
The state of the Acad´emie franc¸aise is parlous indeed. At the risk of appearing too critical, one may note that the average age of its members in 2008 was 79, which seems to correspond to its status as the oldest institution in France. It is woefully conservative, even obscurantist, ruling as it does with a linguistic iron fist. One may quote two examples to justify this assertion. First, when the last spelling reforms took place in 1990, the Acad´emie initially accepted them but then withdrew them, yielding to pressure from the purists. Second, any commission seeking French equivalents of burgeoning English technical terminology must submit their proposals to the Acad´emie. An ever dwindling number of creative authors tend their candidature for election, for as Andr´e Gide remarked in the 1930s: “C’est comme une h´er´esie d’y pr´etendre.” Philippe Sollers is quoted in the Nouvel observateur (March 5, 2008) as ` ceux qui ne laisseront pas de traces saying: “Elle est r´eserv´ee aux m´ediocres, a durables . . . Le vrai probl`eme de l’Acad´emie franc¸aise, c’est qu’on risque d’ˆetre ´elu.” For some, the Old Lady is en panne.
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A Reference Grammar of French
to such restraints that risk weakening its vitality and innovative aspirations, and it must be emphasized that most well-informed, contemporary linguists view any language, not just French, as subject to inevitable and reinventive fluctuations that reflect the vicissitudes of life. The French Acad´emie still serves regretfully as a serious brake on the creative processes of language, maintaining its commitment to the centralizing influences of Napoleonic institutions. As against non-French speakers of French, Belgians, for instance, its members still ascribe to themselves the symbolic value of the ultimate reference for the French language, even though the Acad´emie has not published a grammar since 1932. It exerts a restraining influence on the status of French as a world language. In an e-mail sent to one of the present authors by the Belgian linguist Daniel Blampied, one ` la diff´erence de l’Acad´emie franc¸aise, les grammairiens belges reads: “A mettent au premier plan le concept d’´evolution de la langue.” At the same time, the foreign learner of a language should be aware of what is meant by “correct,” or “incorrect,” and here there exists a fine line between the two judgments. If a native French speaker makes utterances accepted by most of his/her compatriots, these reach a degree of linguistic and even social acceptability. If, in contrast, a speaker of French, probably a foreigner, makes a statement that few native French speakers would allow, anywhere in the world, then that statement is “incorrect.” One could discuss the use by a native speaker of the imperfect subjunctive in certain contexts where it might or might not be appropriate. Usually, an argument for its use may be made, however archaic a subjunctive form may sound (and a group in France meets regularly and idiosyncratically to maintain its use), but what is certain is that the possible contentious issue of the use of the imperfect subjunctive does not give rise to benchmarks of “correctness” or “incorrectness” in the same way as saying mon femme instead of ma femme, as one would hear in Reunion creole, a solecism which would provoke unmitigated condemnation if it were uttered as part of a standard French sentence. The study of French grammar requires us to adhere to what most French speakers say and write, but this does not entail a rigidity or straitjacket of language which obliges us to follow the paradigms set by some grammars that still constantly, and unhelpfully, quote classical writers like La Fontaine, Racine, Corneille or Voltaire as a means of illustrating and justifying a grammatical rule. Grevisse’s Le bon usage is not innocent in this matter. The present volume aims to adopt a descriptive, rather than a prescriptive, approach. From the modest, even humble status of a vulgar tongue in the GalloRoman period, the French language has emerged from the langue d’o¨ıl most vigorously and triumphantly, shaking off the challenge of its competitor the langue d’oc, and has become the medium for a rich literary output, an analytical tool that can be applied to a multitude of tasks, whether in works of a didactic or scientific nature, or in public acts of government
Brief introduction to the French language
11
or diplomacy. It combines homogeneity and diversity, in spite of the sluggishness of the Acad´emie, and has thrived on a capacity for survival and innovation, developing from Latin a harmonious system of sounds, a rich seam of verb forms, a simplified case scheme, all of which favors a clear and logical manner of expression. Provided it does not return to the reactionary and impoverishing attitudes of the sixteenth-century Malherbe who denounced archaisms, dialectical forms, diminutives (generating so much richness and exuberance in Italian and Spanish), neologisms and foreign, borrowed terms, its future is bright indeed. Inspired by nineteenth-century Romanticism, it is slowly succeeding in throwing off the weight of its abstract and aristocratic character, the constraining dictates of grammarians and university professors, revolting against the artificiality and cramping restrictions imposed and maintained in the name of le bon goˆ ut. There now exists a flourishing democratization of language where popular sentiment nourishes and stimulates verbal representations of a higher order. The resources of the French language are limitless, corresponding as they do to our natural desire for a perfection and harmony in form and expression which help to combat the forces of destruction, dissension and conflict. Language is the most fundamental form of communication which distinguishes mankind from the animal world, conveys to us our sense of worth, dignity and courage, and provides the grasp of a human order which makes life meaningful. The study of French grammar forms part of this need to give permanence and meaning to life, imposing coherence on incoherence and a precise form on formlessness.
Part I
1 Register / Le registre
A most dominant factor in the use of language and, in the case of the present book, of grammar, is register, or variety or level of language determined by the communicative situation in which the speaker or writer finds him/herself. In other words, the level of language we resort to depends, to a very large extent, on whether we are speaking with friends, which would attract a colloquial style, writing a letter or delivering a lecture, which would involve a standard style or even a very formal register entailing an elevated type of expression that could be associated with literature or any polished written form. The levels of language may differ from informal to formal, and are determined by five factors: sex, age, status, intimacy and context or circumstances. All these factors affect, in varying degrees, the way we use language in areas of both vocabulary and grammar. Of course, the present work is concerned exclusively with grammar, the use of which will be presented in the context of register, when suitable and necessary. Register assignations as treated in this book will appear as R1 (colloquial, in French = familier), R2 (standard, in French = courant) or R3 (formal/elevated, in French = soutenu). These subsections may be summarized in the following manner: extreme informality R1 very informal, casual, colloquial, familiar, elliptical, grammatically unsound, repetitive, pleonastic. We are in the spoken sphere here.
R2 standard, polite, educated, grammatically sound
extreme formality R3 formal, literary, official, language of scholars and purists, meticulously correct, reluctant to admit new grammatical structures, even archaic
It must be stressed that these subdivisions are artificial, and that the reality behind them consists of subtle, imperceptible shifts, not rigidly 15
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A Reference Grammar of French
defined categories. We have confined these register divisions to three, as being more practicable to handle, although one could argue the case for more. One should bear in mind that, given the more lax attitude over the tuition in French grammar, and in the grammars of many Western countries, in English, Spanish and Italian for instance, errors now occur in speech and writing in these languages, whereas once they did not. At the same time, in rural regions in particular where formal instruction has never been as available as in urban areas, the subjunctive, for example, is not respected, or at least it is used together with the indicative without the speaker or writer realizing that French grammar would require elle vienne after il faut que. In other words, among a certain percentage of the French population, il faut que could very easily be followed by elle vient, a construction that probably all well educated French speakers would find unacceptable. Whether or not such a solecism could be classed as R1 offers an unresolved difficulty since, if a French speaker utters it, it must have some validity. One could make the same kind of comments over gender “errors.” Looking toward the future, it is possible that some of what are deemed “incorrect” usages contained in R1 will become socially acceptable language. An excellent illustration of this point is the previous reluctance of British English to admit different to or different than, American importations that are now gaining credibility. Similarly, the former resistance to apr`es qu’elle soit sortie in favor of apr`es qu’elle est sortie has now faded. It is manifestly obvious that since the French language is spoken over vast territories, five continents in fact, it will inevitably entail grammatical diversity and even uncertainty, in light of which what is acceptable in one French-speaking country could attract censure, or at least hesitation, in another. One does, of course, need to examine what is meant by “correctness.” There are two senses in which a language is “correct.” The first relates to a foreigner’s manipulation of the language. If what is said is unacceptable to a native speaker or writer in any register, then it is “incorrect.” The second is connected to a native speaker’s attitude to her/his own language, and this is a more complex matter. In the popular and educated mind, there exists a close association between “correct” and the standard language: features of local varieties and registers which differ from “standard” usage are deemed “incorrect,” even though they are used by native speakers. The Acad´emie franc¸aise was once recognized as the guardian of the “correctness” of French, but this is no longer the case (see note 2 in the introduction), for its authority is increasingly contested, by the Belgians, for instance. There are now numerous agencies over the globe offering judgments and pronouncements on the French language, and they all enjoy linguistic parity, notwithstanding any rebuke emanating from the Acad´emie in Paris, so that the assessment of correctness has in many cases become arbitrary. Differences in use abound. The Belgians and Swiss say septante
Register
17
and nonante while in Romandy (Suisse romande) one hears huitante. In eastern France, the dialectical septante occurs. These cardinals are more logical and certainly more helpful for foreign speakers of French than soixantedix, quatre-vingts and quatre-vingt-dix, supported as they are by the Italian (settanta, ottanta, novanta) and the Spanish (setenta, ochenta and noventa). Again, in standard French, the Belgians use the indirect object lui as well as the direct object le in: C ¸a ne lui regarde pas = C ¸a ne le regarde pas. Such usage would be more typical of dialect speech in France. Aller au coiffeur/boulanger is regarded with suspicion and even condemnation in France, where aller chez le coiffeur/boulanger reigns supreme, although this expression with au/`a la certainly exists in France. To note how these register categories vary, there follows a small compendium of examples illustrating how register is marked in the treatment of French grammar in the present book. The categories R1, R2 and R3 are used here by way of illustration. It should be understood that these are only rough indications, and that such divisions do not necessarily apply to all French-speaking countries. It goes without saying that many of these grammatical features with an R2 assignation may fit into R3 or R1 contexts. Many of these features will be treated more fully later in the text. See passim. Ellipsis R1 Malade, lui ? Impossible; R2 Il n’est pas malade, ce n’est pas possible. / Il est impossible / Il n’est pas possible qu’il soit malade. ` la fin (du mois) de mai R1 (` a la) fin mai; R2 a R1 (au) d´ebut janvier; R2 au d´ebut (du mois) de janvier ` la fin de la matin´ee R1 en fin de matin´ee; R2 a R1 en d´ebut d’apr`es-midi; R2 au d´ebut de l’apr`es-midi 2. Redundancy of expression ` titre d’exemple / a ` R1 comme, par exemple; R2 par exemple; R3 a l’instar de R1 mais ils ont cependant; R2 mais ils ont / ils ont cependant R1 et puis apr`es; R2 et puis / apr`es; R1 descendre en bas; R2 descendre; R1 monter en haut; R2 monter; R1 sortir dehors (less used); R2 ` l’avance; R2 pr´evoir. Note also these pleonasms sortir; R1 pr´evoir a in full sentences: Avant de partir en promenade, j’ai ajout´e en plus des vˆetements chauds. En plus is not necessary. The verb ajouter is sufficient. Quand mes camarades sont sortis je les ai suivis derri`ere. Derri`ere is not necessary. Suivre is sufficient. B´eatrice nous pr´esente une double alternative. Double is not necessary. Alternative already suggests a choice between two possibilities. 3. Imperative R1 Fermez la porte; R2 (Vous fermez) la porte, s’il vous plaˆıt; R3 Je vous prie de fermer la porte; R1 Fermez pas la porte; R2 Ne fermez pas la porte, s’il vous plaˆıt; R3 Je vous prie de ne pas fermer la porte. 1.
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A Reference Grammar of French
4. Exclamations R1 C ¸ a alors ! Elle est d´ej` a l` a; R2 Quelle surprise ! Elle est d´ej` a l` a; R3 Cela m’´etonne qu’elle soit d´ej` a l` a. / Je m’´etonne qu’elle soit d´ej` a l` a; R1 Ce qu’il a grandi ! / Qu’est-ce qu’il a grandi ! R2 Comme/Qu’il a grandi ! 5. Highlighting R1 L’objectif, c’est de . . . ; R2 L’objectif est de . . . ; R1 Le whisky, ¸ca j’aime pas; R2 Je n’aime pas le whisky. 6. Inversion ` peine est-il arriv´e . . . ; R2 Elle est ` peine arriv´e . . . ; R3 A R2 Il est a du moins la meilleure de la classe; R3 Du moins est-elle la meilleure de la classe; R2 On peut dire tout au plus que . . . ; R3 Tout au plus peut-on dire que . . . ; R2 J’ai vu une voiture qu’une dame conduisait; R3 J’ai vu une voiture que conduisait une dame. Inversion is especially typical of the higher registers. It is therefore highly unlikely that the last example above would be heard in an R1 context. The subjunctive, appearing immediately below, is also more typical of the higher registers, although the first example of the subjunctive does not fit this assessment. Furthermore, some French speakers, usually in rural areas, do not use the subjunctive, or do not know how to use it. 7. Subjunctive R2 apr`es qu’il soit venu; R3 apr`es qu’il est venu; R2 le seul/premier/ dernier homme que je connais; R3 le seul/premier/dernier homme que je connaisse; R2 la meilleure ´el`eve que je connais; R3 la meilleure ´el`eve que je connaisse; R1 Aucun pays permet ¸ca; R2 Il n’y a aucun pays qui permet cela; R3 Il n’y a aucun pays qui permette cela; R1 C’est pas vrai qu’elle est arriv´ee; R2 Il n’est pas vrai qu’elle est arriv´ee; R3 Il n’est pas vrai qu’elle soit arriv´ee. 8. Tense of the subjunctive. ` partir; R3 le fait qu’il fˆ R2 le fait qu’il soit (is/was) le premier a ut le ` partir. premier a 9. Past tenses R2 Louis XIV a ´et´e roi de France; R3 Louis XIV fut roi de France. 10. Agreement with c’est R1 C’est eux; R2 Ce sont eux; R1 C’est les meilleures voitures; R2 Ce sont les meilleures voitures. 11. Agreement between pronoun + ˆetre and the first or third person of the following verb R1 C’est moi qui l’a fait; R2 C’est moi qui l’ai fait; R1 C’est nous qui l’ont fait; R2 C’est nous qui l’avons fait; R1 C’est nous qui sont arriv´es les premiers; R3 C’est nous qui sommes arriv´es les premiers.
Register
19
12. Interrogative statements R1 Tu dis quoi ? R2 Qu’est-ce que tu dis ? R3 Que dis-tu ? R1 Hein/Quoi ? R2 Comment/Pardon ? R3 Plaˆıt-il ? R1 Elle vient ? R2 Est-ce qu’elle vient ? R3 Vient-elle ? R1 Vous venez d’o` u ? / D’o` u vous venez ? R2 D’o` u est-ce que vous venez ? R3 D’o` u venez-vous ? R1 Pourquoi il vient ? R2 Pourquoi est-ce qu’il vient ? R3 Pourquoi vient-il ? R1 Elle vient quand ? R2 Quand est-ce qu’elle vient ? R3 Quand vient-elle ? R1 Il le fait comment ? R2 Comment est-ce qu’il le fait ? R3 Comment le fait-il ? R1 C’´etait qui le premier ministre ? R2 Qui ´etait le premier ministre ? R3 Qui fut le premier ministre ? 13. que versus inversion R2 Peut-ˆetre qu’il viendra / Il viendra peut-ˆetre; R3 Peut-ˆetre viendrat-il; R2 Sans doute qu’elle a raison. / Elle a sans doute raison; R3 Sans doute a-t-elle raison. 14. Pronouns R1 ¸ca; R2 cela (celui-ci / celui-l` a); R1 On est content, les ´educateurs nous aident; R2 On est content d’ˆetre aid´es par les ´educateurs; R3 Nous sommes heureux que les ´educateurs nous viennent en aide. Although one hears on in almost every possible context and register, there still exists the feeling that nous is of a slightly higher register. Native teachers of French would even now encourage their pupils/students to resort to nous in a r´edaction, for instance. On suggests a lower register. Against this argument must be weighed the clear fact that Flaubert, stylist among stylists tormented by les affres du style, uses the pronoun three times in the first eight ´ducation sentimentale. Is the Acad´emie franc¸aise paragraphs of L’E at work again? Or can the creative artist kick over the traces when it comes to personal choice? This is an unresolved issue in many languages. 15. C’est + adjective + de + infinitive as against Il est + adjective + de + infinitive R1 C’est difficile de lire le roman; R2 Il est difficile de lire le roman; R1 Je vois la maison, c’est grand; R2 Je vois la maison, elle est grande. 16. Pronouns and possessive adjectives with parts of the body R1 Une pierre est tomb´ee sur ma tˆete; R2 Une pierre m’est tomb´ee sur la tˆete. Children are especially given to this “error,” and some adults, as in the R1 example. Furthermore, one would never say: J’ai cass´e ma jambe, which is a pure calque on the English. One says: Je me suis cass´e la jambe. 17. Prepositions ` Marc; R2 le chapeau de Marc; R1 Elle y va en R1 le chapeau a ` v´elo/moto; R2 Dans l’´eglise; R3 en l’´eglise. v´elo/moto; R2 Elle y va a
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A Reference Grammar of French
18.
19.
20.
21.
One usually finds en l’´eglise on formal invitations for births, weddings and deaths. R2 pr`es du feu; R3 aupr`es du feu. Aupr`es de has a poetic connotation when used literally, as in the song of anonymous origin: “Aupr`es de ma blonde.” These days, it is used metaphorically and here the register is standard (R2): Je me suis renseign´ee aupr`es du minist`ere des Affaires ´etrang`eres et europ´eennes (MAEE). Negation Notice how in R1 the ne is lost in the first three examples (oser, savoir, pouvoir), is reinstated in R2, while in R3 it is retained to the exclusion of pas: R1 J’ose pas le faire; R2 Je n’ose pas le faire; R3 Je n’ose le faire; R1 Il a pas cess´e de pleuvoir; R2 Il n’a pas cess´e de pleuvoir; R3 Il n’a cess´e de pleuvoir; R1 (Je) sais pas (moi); R2 Je ne sais pas; R3 Je ne sais; R1 (Je) peux pas y aller; R2 Je ne peux pas y aller; R3 Je ne peux/puis y aller; R1 C ¸ a vaut pas le coup de le faire; R2 Cela ne vaut pas le coup de le faire; R1 C’est pas la peine de le faire; R2 Ce n’est pas la peine de le faire. Partitive article with adjective before plural noun R1 des belles plantes / des beaux arbres / des grosses carottes; R2 de belles plantes / de beaux arbres / de grosses carottes. Infinitive versus que clause ` ta m`ere de venir. / Dis a ` ta sœur de venir; R3 Demandez R2 Demande a ` votre m`ere qu’elle vienne / Dis a ` ta sœur qu’elle vienne. a Euphony R2 Si on constate que. . . ; R3 Si l’on constate que. . . As has already been implied in the preceding examples, R1 speech is occasionally, and sometimes frequently, characterized by a failure to pay attention to certain grammatical requirements. One hesitates to brand such solecisms as “incorrect” if it is a native speaker who utters them. However, one can certainly speak of striking departures from the grammatical rules and norms in the following lists, which illustrate the most widespread examples of “errors,” classified as R1 and characterized by deviations from the norm. R2 and R3 equivalents, as well as some explanations, are also provided.
R1
R2 + R3 equivalents
Je m’en rappelle.
Je me le/la rappelle.
(Doubtless on analogy with Je m’en souviens, and it is easier to say than Je me le rappelle.) du point de vue litt´erature
du point de vue litt´eraire
(Litt´erature is used here as an adjective.) un esp`ece de fou.
une esp`ece de fou.
Register
R1
21
R2 + R3 equivalents
(That un agrees with fou and not with esp`ece is very common and one could justifiably advance the argument that it is now R2.) vingt euros chaque se fˆ acher apr`es aller au dentiste/docteur
vingt euros chacun se fˆ acher contre aller chez le dentiste/docteur
(Aller au occurs repeatedly in this context.) Nous avons convenu de signer le contrat (We agreed to. . .)
Nous sommes convenus de. . .
(Convenir conjugated with avoir may now be classified as R2, and it is even encroaching on the written language and supplanting ˆetre + convenir in R3. Most French speakers would no longer know the difference.) Ce n’est pas de sa faute. Elle fait pareil que toi. ` Lyon partir a
Ce n’est pas sa faute. Elle fait comme toi. partir pour Lyon
` is very common here and many R2 speakers would readily use it.) (A ` Paris descendre/monter sur Paris aller / se rendre a Ce que j’ai besoin, c’est. . . Ce dont j’ai besoin, c’est. . . (Since besoin is followed by the partitive de, dont is required here: same comment for the following example.) Ce que j’ai peur, c’est. . . lire sur le journal une avion une ´elastique un autoroute la mode d’emploi
Ce dont j’ai peur, c’est. . . lire dans le journal un avion un ´elastique une autoroute le mode d’emploi
(Genders can cause problems, even for French speakers.) Revenant de voyage, notre p`ere est ` la gare. venu nous chercher a
` la Notre p`ere est venu nous chercher a ` notre retour. gare a
(Syntactically, revenant relates here to p`ere and not to nous, but this is not the meaning of the sentence.) Similarly: ´tant absent tout le week-end, je n’ai ´tant absent tout le week-end, ils n’ont E E pas pu me pr´evenir. pas pu ˆetre pr´evenu. (Here, absent really refers to me but this does not fit the logic of the construction.) Il en parle souvent (de ses amis italiens).
Il parle souvent d’eux.
(En is used preferably for things rather than for people.) chez la famille Lano¨e Je l’ai reconnue rien qu’` a sa voix.
dans la famille Lano¨e Je l’ai reconnue seulement en l’´ecoutant.
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A Reference Grammar of French
One finds with children and older people living in a rural environment with little formal education that they “regularize” certain features of the French language, and regularization has its logic. Children will readily say with intransitive verbs that are conjugated with ˆetre: J’ai tomb´e (instead of: je suis tomb´e/e) dans les escaliers; J’ai descendu (instead of: je suis descendu/e) dans la rue; J’ai mont´e (instead of: je suis `/dans ma chambre. mont´e/e) a The following few lines from the beginning of a nursery rhyme show how common this use of avoir is instead of ˆetre: “J’ai descendu dans mon jardin, J’ai descendu dans mon jardin (bis), Pour y cueillir du romarin, Gentil coquelicot, Mesdames, Gentil coquelicot nouveau . . . ” Such a “faulty” construction has its parallel in Spanish where all verbs are conjugated in the active voice with the equivalent of avoir (haber). The same is not true of Italian which has even more intransitive verbs conjugated with essere (ˆetre) than French. French-speaking children naturally meet difficulties with the conjugation of irregular verbs, and they cause them as much disquiet as they do foreign learners of the language. A child could easily say: Je vais m’assir (= Je vais m’asseoir), and could stumble over the present tense of bouillir, saying bouillis instead of bous, or the future of cueillir ( = cueillerai), saying cueillirai. Bouillir and cueillir constitute obstacles for adults too. Verbal regularization with children has its equivalent in English with, for example: She felled down. / He caughted/catched the ball. Below are three letters dealing with the same subject: asking for information on a tourist visit to the Far East. The difference lies in the treatment and style of each letter. The first is couched in R1 colloquial or familiar style, the second in R2 standard language, and the third in R3 elevated language. In all three cases, the particular characteristics of each register are shown in bold. It should be borne in mind that the second letter is distinguished by a certain uniformity or neutrality of language.
Register/R1 Mauron Fr´ed´eric Guide des Circuits Touristiques Agence du Grand Passage 55 Rue du Rhˆ one 1201 Gen`eve SUISSE 28/07/11
Register
23
Salut Fredo, Tu vas comment depuis la derni`ere fois ? C ¸ a fait un sacr´ e bail (It’s a helluva time ago), dis donc ! Tiens, donc, avec un groupe de copains, ` explorer le globe . . . Tu peux m’envoyer a ` on a d´ecid´e de continuer a mon adresse plus bas, d`es que tu as un petit moment, des d´epliants sur les circuits touristiques en Extrˆeme Orient ? C ¸ a va ˆ etre hallucinant (great/terrific) de d´ecouvrir cette partie du monde. Tu peux sugg´ erer quelque chose aux copains ? ` pr´eparer un itin´eraire pour faire le Cambodge, le Viˆetnam On tient a et le Laos. On part dans deux ans, soit entre le 01 et le 31 aoˆ ut 2013. Tu seras gentil et tu nous passes toutes les infos possibles pour bien boucler notre escapade. Et les tarifs sp´eciaux, il y en a pour les jeunes ? Quels sont les circuits divers et vari´es qui co¨ıncident avec nos dates de vacances ? Merci pour la doc ! Bisous Sandrine Sandrine Buisson, 44 Rue Mar´echal Randon, 38 000 Grenoble, France Register/R2 Sandrine Buisson, 44 Rue Mar´echal Randon, 38 000 Grenoble, France, t´el´ephone : 00 33 (0)4 76 63 08 45, e-mail : [emailprotected] ` A Mauron Fr´ed´eric Guide des Circuits Touristiques Agence du Grand Passage 55 Rue du Rhˆ one 1201 Gen`eve SUISSE Grenoble le 28/07/11 Mon cher ami Fred, Est-ce que tu pourrais m’envoyer, d`es que possible, des informations concernant des circuits exotiques que propose ton agence ? Je te communique ma nouvelle adresse ci-dessus. Nous avons l’intention de faire un circuit touristique en Extrˆeme Orient. Avec un groupe de vieux amis, on voudrait pr´ eparer un circuit pour faire une visite du Cambodge, du Viˆetnam et du Laos. Le circuit touristique est pr´evu d’ici deux ans, c’est-` a-dire entre le 01 et le 31 aoˆ ut 2013. Je te remercie de nous faire parvenir toute la documentation n´ ecessaire pour bien pr´eparer notre futur p´eriple. Quels sont les tarifs sp´ eciaux
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A Reference Grammar of French
pour un groupe ? Est-ce qu’il est possible d’avoir une petite id´ ee de vos diff´erents circuits en tenant compte de nos dates de vacances ? En attendant de recevoir tes d´epliants, rec¸ois mon tr` es amical souvenir. ` toi, Bien a Sandrine Register/R3 Buisson Sandrine, 44 Rue Mar´echal Randon, 38 000 Grenoble, France, t´el´ephone : 00 33 (0)4 76 63 08 45, e-mail : [emailprotected] ` l’attention de A Mauron Fr´ed´eric Guide des Circuits Touristiques Agence du Grand Passage 55 Rue du Rhˆ one 1201 Gen`eve SUISSE Grenoble le/ce lundi 28 juillet 2011 Objet : Demande d’informations relatives aux circuits touristiques en Extrˆeme Orient Monsieur, ` mon Je vous prie de bien vouloir me transmettre d`es que possible a ` vos circuits adresse susmentionn´ee quelques brochures relatives a touristiques en Extrˆeme Orient. Avec un petit groupe d’amis, nous souhaiterions pr´ eparer un circuit pour combiner une visite du Cambodge, du Viˆetnam et du Laos. Ce circuit touristique pourrait se d´erouler entre le 01 et le 31 aoˆ ut 2012. Nous vous remercions de bien vouloir nous communiquer toutes les informations n´ecessaires pour pr´eparer le voyage dans les conditions les meilleures. Par ailleurs, nous vous prions de nous faire connaˆıtre vos tarifs sp´eciaux pour un groupe et vos diff´erents circuits en fonction de nos dates de vacances pr´ecis´ees dans le paragraphe pr´ ec´ edent. Dans l’attente de recevoir votre documentation, veuillez agr´ eer, Monsieur Mauron, l’expression de nos salutations distingu´ ees. Buisson Sandrine
2 Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation / L’alphabet, l’orthographe, la prononciation L’orthographe des langues est une convention dans laquelle la prononciation n’a que faire ; et la profonde erreur des grammairiens d’aujourd’hui, c’est d’avoir pris au pied de la lettre cet axiˆome e´ tourdi d’un grand e´ crivain : « L’orthographe est l’image de la prononciation. » Charles Nodier (1780–1844) If one interprets this quotation correctly, it leads to an extreme wariness of the function of spelling and its relationship with pronunciation. After all, letters merely represent a series of conventional signs which we have come to identify with certain sounds. Whether such a quotation justifies contemporary text spelling is analyzed at the end of this chapter. It must be stressed that, if there is no other method available, by way of native French speakers, the only sure method to access truly French sounds and to reproduce them is to consult these sounds on the Internet, where a vast range of helpful sites now provide their accurate re-creation. Recommended sites to be called up are, on Google: French Alphabet or French Pronunciation. This much more beneficial and constructive method infinitely surpasses any value that the intricate and alienating signs of the International Phonetic Alphabet may have. Moreover, the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have the appeal it once had. The alphabet is the same in French as it is in English. It is used to represent the sounds of French. However, French pronunciation varies from region to region, and from country to country, just as worldwide English or Spanish does. Glaswegian English differs markedly from the English heard in southern England, New York, Texas, California, Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan and so on. The Spanish of the Iberian Peninsula exhibits clear differences in Spain itself, from Castile to Andalusia, from Mexico to Colombia and Argentina. Similarly, French as pronounced in the north of France contrasts sharply with that of Marseilles, for instance. Indeed, the Marseilles accent is imbued with a color and vivacity that have little in common with the accent of Paris. It even has a comic resonance for the ear of the capital’s inhabitants. Of a first-class engineer hailing from Marseilles appointed to an important post in Paris, a company executive 25
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A Reference Grammar of French
is alleged to have said: “Tr`es bien, votre ing´enieur. Mais, la prochaine fois, envoyez-nous quelqu’un de s´erieux. Avec son accent de Marseille, il fait rire tout le monde.” Jokes sound funnier if related in a southern accent, and doubtless the legendary comedian Fernandel, among others, has reinforced this impression. One should add to this sometimes hilarious variation in accent and vocabulary the dialect of northeastern France, as exemplified by the film Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis, which appeared in 2008 and was directed by Dany Boon. The making of valuable general comments upon the issues raised by pronunciation is fraught with risk. Pronunciation is the least stable, most variable of a person’s speech habits, and it need not be emphasized that a single individual will not always pronounce the same word in the same way, and will be affected by a whole range of factors such as context, emotion, imitation, tiredness, pretentiousness, jocularity, desire to impress and so on. Consequently, many of the remarks in this chapter are to be treated with some reservation. Another problem is that certain tendencies of pronunciation are restricted to a particular region or regions; in such cases, disentangling accent from register is difficult. However, on the whole, as might be expected, an R1 speaker will pay less attention to her/his pronunciation than an R2 speaker, and certainly less than an R3 speaker delivering a lecture, for instance. The most obvious general characteristic of R1 pronunciation is a relative laziness in articulation, resulting in, among other things, the loss of certain sounds, and the introduction or change of others. What is undeniable is that a person reading a literary passage from a book would doubtless articulate more clearly and deliberately than a person telling a joke in a playful context to friends encouraged to laugh. The French language contains sixteen vowels (including varieties), twenty consonants, one nasal consonant and three semi-vowels. There follows a shortened list with some of the various written accents which indicate slight differences in pronunciation. The comments that follow the list are important since they point to divergences, for many vowel sounds are composed of more than one letter, and vowels may also be lengthened, in diphthongs for instance.
2.1 Basic and single vowels Letter A/a ˆ /ˆ A a E/e ´/´e E `/`e E ˆ/ˆe E ¨/¨e E
Example in words date, chat pˆ ate, tˆ ache le, ce, chemin, petit pr´e, donn´e m`ere, p`ere ˆetre, hˆetre Mme de Sta¨el (of epistolary fame), aig¨ ue
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
Letter I/i ˆI/ˆı ¨I/¨ı O/o ˆo O/ˆ U/u ˆ /ˆ U u ¨ /¨ U u y 1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
10.
27
Example in words cri, vite ´epˆıtre, gˆıte, maˆıtre na¨ıf, ma¨ıs, astero¨ıde, gla¨ıeul rose, dos, chaud rˆ ole, pˆ ole russe, cru mˆ ur, sˆ ur Sa¨ ul, contig¨ ue, aig¨ ue, exig¨ ue (once = contingu¨e, aigu¨e, exigu¨e) cycle, hypoth`ese
ˆ sound differs from a since it is pronounced higher in the mouth The a and corresponds approximately to the English a in father. It is sometimes stressed or elongated to sound ironic or pretentious. The ´e ( = e accent aigu or acute accent) is a closed sound (e ferm´e). The `e ( = e accent grave or grave accent) is an open sound (e ouvert). e but is The ˆe ( = e accent circonflexe or circumflex accent) is similar to ` slightly longer. The i and the ˆı are the same sound, although the ˆı could be slightly elongated. ˆ are the same sound, although the latter could be The o and the o slightly elongated. Practice of the sound(s) o/ˆ o is offered by the quirky name of a lake in the French Pyrenees, near Bagn`eres-de-Luchon: Lac ˆ . Fortuitously, this d’Oˆo which, for most French speakers, sounds like o is the same sound as eau. ˆ are the same sound, although the latter could be The u and the u slightly elongated. Both sounds could be elongated if followed by an r, for instance: mur, mˆ ur, sˆ ur. ¨ ) indicate that the preceding vowel is The letters with a tr´ema (¨e, ¨ı, u pronounced separately. Some vowel sounds are markedly different with a southern (m´eridional) accent, for instance the o of rose or chaud is much more open in southˆ of the Paris area is often ern France than in the north. Likewise, the a much more pronounced and elongated than elsewhere in France. The stark difference of vowel sounds arising from the north/south divide should not prevent us from considering the multitude of possibilities of other accents. Within France itself, the French accent in eastern France, notably in Alsace, differs pointedly from that of western France, to the degree that it requires considerable concentration on the part of a person from Nantes to follow local speech from, say, Guebwiller, or Riquewihr. Belgium, Switzerland, sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, Quebec, French West Indies, Guyana, Madagascar, Reunion, Mauritius and New Caledonia all manifest distinctive characteristics that are impossible to cover in a book of this kind. An example taken
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A Reference Grammar of French
from Quebec illustrates this feature. Lengthening of vowels such as the a (pˆ ate > paiute) or the e (fˆete > fa`ete) which resolves them into diphthongs is very common, for all their censuring by teachers of the language. Such lengthening of vowels is not unusual in Belgium and Switzerland. One particular pronunciation feature that brings together all three countries, as well as Nice in southern France, is the continued distinction between the u of brun and the i of brin whereas in Paris, for example, they attract the same sound. 11. The e in rapid, colloquial and sometimes affectionate speech is often lost, as in mon p’tit gars, un p’tit bonhomme, and re is also often dropped, as in quat’ (e.g., L’op´era de quat’ sous = The Threepenny Opera, by Kurt ` quat’ pattes (on all fours), un quat’ quat’ (4x4 vehicle). Weill), a 12. Note that the sound produced by –ais, as in the imperfect tense je regardais, is an open e as in ` e, but some pronounce it as a closed e (´e). The difference between this ais sound and the ai sound is clear for most cultured French speakers, but some confuse it. The ai sound as in the past historic je regardai in a French dictation needs to be articulated very clearly to avoid the understanding of the imperfect tense. 13. In the present computer age, one other vowel is to be added: ar(r)obase or @, which corresponds to the English at in e-mails: [emailprotected]. Since the word arrobase is never seen in writing but only pronounced (the same would be the case for w or double v´e), it gives rise to alternative spellings: arrobase, arobas. Its gender is unclear, but one must assume one says une arrobase, notwithstanding hesitation among informed computer professors. The origin of the word seems to be arroba, a Spanish unit of a measure of weight, from the Arabic, and this noun is certainly feminine.
2.2 Combinations of vowels Letter eu, œu
Example in words feu, ceux, bœuf, nœud, œuf, cœur
The sound eu/œu is elongated when followed by certain pronounced consonants: fleur, jeune, meule, seul, cœur, sœur. The past participle of avoir (j’ai eu) does not correspond to this sound. The eu here is pronounced as u. Interestingly enough, a small town in northern France, inland from the port Dieppe, Eu, is pronounced as in feu.
2.3 Nasalized vowels (i.e., followed by n or m) Letter in, ein, ain, (i)en, yn, im, aim, ym
Example in words vin, plein, main, bien, syntaxe, n’importe, faim, thym
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
Letter an, en, am, em, aon on, om un, eun, um
29
Example in words enfant, tambour, temps, paon mon, plomb ` jeun, parfum lundi, a
1. When these combinations are followed by an e, for instance, the previous vowel is denasalized: bonne (compare with bon), il sonne (compare with son), panne (compare with Pan Pan, who is Walt Disney’s Thumper, and le bon usage). This does not always happen: grand > grande. 2. Loss of the nasal sound also occurs between two words when the second begins with a vowel. This feature is notably common with plein: en plein air, en plein apr`es-midi, une industrie en plein essor, un plein arc-en-ciel.
2.4 Elongated nasalized vowels Letter in, ein, ain, ˆın, im an, en, am, em on, om um
Example in words prince, ceindre, plaindre, vˆınmes, grimpe danse, entre, ample, trempe honte, nombre, compte humble
2.5 Diphthongs (formed with semi-consonants) 2.5.1 With rising intonation Letter ie, ia, io, iou, ien, ion, ya, yeu oue, oua, oui, oi, in, ouin, way ue, ui, ueu
Example in words chr´etien, diable, pied, pierre, piano, pioche, ration, Sioux, voyage, yeux je bois, loin, Louis, noir, ouate ouest, oui, pingouin, tramway aiguille, huit, lui, lueur, muet, puits, rigueur, sueur, tueur, verdeur
2.5.2 With descending intonation Letter Example in words ill sillage eil, ay ensoleill´e, payer aill travaillons ˆill a bˆ ailler euill, œill, ueill veuillez, œillade, cueillir 2.5.3 With descending intonation and elongation of vowel Letter Example in words ille fille, famille eil, eill, aye soleil, veille, paye ail, aill travail, travaille ˆill a bˆ aille euil(l), œil, ueill fauteuil, feuille, œil, orgueil, cueille
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A Reference Grammar of French
The articulation of French diphthongs is particularly difficult for English speakers, and for speakers of other European languages. The euil(l) type is especially awkward.
2.6 Basic consonants Letter B/b C/c D/d F/f G/g H/h J/j K/k L/l M/m N/n P/p Q/q R/r S/s T/t V/v W/w X/x Z/z
Example in words beau, bleu, bon, abb´e cire, cendre, ceinture donner, addition, sud feu, effet, bref gˆ ateau, gare, guerre, guide habiller, heure, malheur Jean, jouet, japonais kiosque, karat´e, k´epi lait, l`evre, hˆ otel, table maman, flamme, aimer ˆne naissance, canne, a pain, frapper, appel quatre, quarante, quand rare, marbre, rhume, marron siffler, son, sauter ton, table, tirer, attacher voir, vivre, laver Wagram, Wagner, wagon extrˆeme, laxatif, taxi z´ero, z´ephir, azur
1. These consonants have many other sound values. This depends almost entirely on their location in a word or group of words. Each consonant is treated in turn to consider the varieties of sounds it gives rise to. b When b precedes an s or t it becomes a p: observer, obtenir, obtus. c C sounds like an s when it carries a cedilla (c¸) before a, o or u: ¸ca, lec¸on, mac¸on, Alenc¸on, conc¸u. When the c precedes a, o or u and does not bear a cedilla it has the sound of a k: camp, coq, cur´e. The combinations ch/ck also produce the sound of k: bock, biftec(k), chr´etien, cromlech (neolithic stone formation), ´echo. Ch/a/e/o can also give the English sound sh as in shoot: charlatan, chose, chercher. C at the end of a word and following a vowel also produces a k sound: lac, grec, Mauriac, tic-tac, soc. C at the end of a word and following a consonant may have the sound of k: parc, turc.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
d f g h
31
C at the end of a word and following a consonant may be silent: porc, marc de caf´e (coffee dregs). C in second/secondaire has the value of g. In some combinations of words, where the d precedes a vowel, it sounds like a t: un grand homme. This letter sounds like a v when it precedes certain vowel combinations: neuf heures, Elle a neuf ans. When g precedes e or i, it sounds like a j: Andr´e Gide, gigot, manger, largeur. This letter is never pronounced. A word with an initial h muet is treated as if it begins with a vowel. Elision or liaison occurs: l’homme, les hommes, l’histoire, les histoires. An interesting case is the name of the German dictator Hitler. One would say and write la strat´egie d’Hitler but le nouveau Hitler where one could expect nouvel. La strat´egie de Hitler is quite possible in writing as well. Hamlet raises similar issues. One would say and write le drame d’Hamlet but one could easily write le drame de Hamlet. Last but not least, one says and writes les ´epop´ees d’Hom`ere. One also writes: L’Iliade et l’Odyss´ee de Hom`ere. Some uneasiness is felt about the juxtaposition of two vowels, which explains why the loss of the e in de in these combinations does not occur frequently in speech. A word beginning with an h aspir´e is treated as if it begins with a consonant, though the h itself is not sounded: la harpe, le haut d’une colline, la hauteur d’un mur, la hotte. A curious anomaly occurs with the aspirate h of hasard. One says ` tout hasard, au hasard des ´ev´enements and so on, and writes le hasard, a but le bel hasard, an R3 expression one easily finds in formal writing. One would expect the adjective beau here but this is not the case. Perhaps the unusual combination of the sounds o and a prevents the use of beau. In a few words, h between vowels is treated as a tr´ema: cahier. Clearly, it is not always easy for an English speaker to realize which words begin with an h aspir´e. The following list offers the most common ones with h aspir´e, most of which have a Germanic origin, and some an English origin. See Grevisse and Goosse (2008, p. 55) for a comprehensive picture. Cognate words are not given: hˆ ableur but not hˆ ablerie, honte but not honteux, hanche but not d´ehancher, hors but not dehors: hˆ ableur, hache, hagard, haie, haillon, haine, ha¨ır, hˆ ale, haler, haleter, hall, halle, hallebarde, hallier, halo, halte, hameau, hamac, hamster, hanche, hand-ball (–ball pronounced as in balle since hand-ball comes from the German: football pronounced as in English, whence it derives), handicap, hangar, hanneton, hant´e, happer, hara-kiri, harangue, haras, harasser, harceler, hardes, hardi, harem,
32
A Reference Grammar of French
k p q r
s
t
x
hareng, hargne, haricot, harnais, harpe, harpie, harpon, hasard, haschich, hˆ ate, haut, hauteur, hˆ ave, havre, havresac, hayon, heaume, hˆeler, hennir, h´erault, here (only heard in pauvre here or poor wretch, and causes uncertainty in French speakers with respect to h aspir´e since one never hears le here), h´erisser, hernie, h´eron, h´eros (but l’h´ero¨ıne, l’h´ero¨ısme), herse, hˆetre, heurter, hibou, hic (as in Voil` a le hic or There’s the rub, of Hamlet fame), hideux, hippie, hisser, hobby, hobereau, hocher, hockey, holding, hold-up, homard, home, hongre (as in cheval hongre or gelded horse), honnir (as in Honni soit qui mal y pense), honte, hoquet, horde, hors, houblon, houille, houle, houlette, houppe, houppelande, houspiller, housse, houx, huche, huer, Huguenot, humer, hurler, hussard, hutte. This is not a true French letter. It is imported with foreign terms. With the combination ph it sounds like an f, as in English: phase, phrase, Joseph. With u as in quota (sounds like cota). Certain adjectives ending in –er (closed e) are only pronounced, as open e ( = ` ere) when they precede vowels: premier acte/homme ( = sounded premi`ere), dernier avion/homme ( = derni`ere). This letter is not only pronounced as in siffler above (i.e., s in the English sock) but also like the English z when it occurs between two vowels: baser, s’amuser, d´ephas´e, laser. When two s’s occur together the sound is as in siffler: masser, tasse, casser. There is some hesitation over words like abasourdir. Although for informed speakers the s here is like the z, the ss sound is not uncommon. In words ending –isme, although the standard sounds as a double s (socialisme, capitalisme), one does hear s as a z: compare romantisme (ss) and romantisme (z). Those who pronounce the s here as a z are often considered as pretentious or snobbish (sounds like snobizme). ˆtre, In the combination th, the t still retains its individual sound: th´ea thon, th´eorie, thermal. When the t appears at the end of a word it is not usually sounded: petit, salit, Corot, Marat. This does not apply, however, to granit where the t is sounded. Granite also exists. Although the t of vingt as an isolated word is not sounded, it is when placed with compounds: vingt et un (one would expect it here), vingt-deux, vingt-trois, vingt-quatre . . . vingt-neuf. T in the middle of a word is often sounded as an ss: d´ementiel, d´esertion, (im)partial, ineptie, inertie, martial, national, proph´etie, spartiate, spatial, station, supr´ematie. Has two sounds, and in one position does not sound at all. When before a vowel it sounds like z: Elle a dix/deux ans/euros.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
33
When in isolation it sounds like ss: “Tu en as combien ?” “Dix” but in deux the x is not sounded. When before a consonant, it is not sounded: Elle a dix/deux livres sterling / dollars. w Like k, this is a letter that has arrived through borrowed words, and can vary in pronunciation between the English w and the French v: some words with the w sound are: western (i.e., a film), whist, whisky, waterpolo, week-end, wigwam. Some words with the v sound, and these are not uncommon, are: wagon (-lit), walkyrie, Wisigoth. It must be added that few or no French speakers would confuse the w and v sounds in these words, although there could easily be uncertainty over a well-known French personality, now deceased, Patrick Dewaere, where the w is pronounced as a v and not as a w. Although the letter w is imported, the actual sound it produces is not foreign to French pronunciation, witness Section 2.5 on diphthongs: ouest, ouate, oui, oie, moi, toi, soi, loi, roi, crois, rudoyer, octroyer. The w is notably common in northeastern France, the Pas-de-Calais and Belgium, witness the name of the town Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, and especially Waterloo, scene of Napoleon’s defeat at the hands of Wellington and Bl¨ ucher. With respect to the w characteristic of this area, the following conundrum is appropriate, although not known by all French speakers: In which French department are there most women of noble descent? Answer: Pas-de-Calais, for one finds there 8,808 marchionesses or huit mille huit cent huit marquises (Wimille Wissant Wittes Marquise). y Apart from being considered as a vowel, this letter also has the function of a semi-consonant: yeux, moyen, payer, myope, pays. 2. Consonants at the end of many French words are not pronounced. They remain silent. On the other hand, some words contain final consonants that are pronounced, and there is no sure way of separating the two groups except by resorting to dictionaries. The two lists below contain a wide range of words that function differently in these two ways. The first list includes the words where the consonant is not pronounced while the second list includes those that are. It needs to be pointed out that this list does not include conjugated verbs where, in a general way, the s and the t are not pronounced: lis, lit, lus, lut, ´ecris, ´ecrit, ´ecrivis, ´ecrivit, cours, court, courus, courut, prends, prend, pris, prit, and so on. The list only contains a few adjectives where the unsounded consonant in the masculine form takes an e for the feminine form, and here the consonant is pronounced: gras/grasse, gros/grosse, petit/petite, grand/grande and so on. The letters treated are: c, d, f, l, n, p, s, t and x.
34
A Reference Grammar of French
c, unpronounced: accroc, banc, blanc, broc, caoutchouc, clerc, croc, escroc, flanc, marc (but in the given name Marc the c is pronounced), porc, tabac, tronc. c, pronounced (as a k): aqueduc (as near Nˆımes, southern France, or the magnificent Roman structure in Segovia, central Spain), arc, archeduc (as in Archduke Franz Ferdinand whose assassination by the Serb terrorist Gavrilo Princip was the fuse for World War I), aspic (kind of viper, but some French speakers are happy to omit the c), bac, bec, bic, bouc, bric-` a-brac, Cadillac, caduc, choc, clac, clic-clac, clic, couac (error, blunder), crac, cric, donc, duc, ´echec, fisc, flic, frac, fric, grec, hamac, hic, krack, lac, loustic, Luc, Mach (as in Mach 2/3), mastic, mastoc, mec, ol´eoduc (pipeline), parc, pic, plouc (uncouth person, out of touch with modern activities), pronostic, Qu´ebec, ressac, roc, sac, sec, smic, soc, stuc, suc, syndic (official receiver for a failing company), tic, tic-tac, toc, trafic, troc, truc (knack/thing/trick), turc, viaduc (as the one designed by Norman Foster near Millau in southern France), (en) vrac (as in en vrac = loose / in bulk / higgledy-piggedly), c’est ric-rac (it’s just enough). Ct at the end of words is usually pronounced: abject, contact, impact, infect, tact. Ct at the end of words where it is not pronounced: aspect, (in)distinct (in some areas the ct is pronounced), respect. Exact has both pronunciations, but the non-pronunciation of ct is more elegant. d, unpronounced (final d is rarely pronounced): badaud (onlooker, gawker), bord, crapaud, dard, ´echafaud, gland, lard, lord (sometimes the d is pronounced, especially in the Midi), nid, nigaud (stupid/dumb person), nœud, nord, pied, ringard, sal(ig)aud, tacaud. However, final d as in grand is pronounced as a t when liaison occurs: grand esprit. d, pronounced: baroud (only in baroud d’honneur = last-ditch stand), bled, lad, raid (i.e., behind enemy lines, also: long-distance endurance automobile journey), sud. f, unpronounced: cerf, clef (follows the pronunciation of cl´e), nerf, serf. f, pronounced: bœuf (but in the plural the s is not pronounced, neither is the f ), fief, juif, meuf (a verlan word for femme), nef, neuf (adjective and figure), œuf (but in the plural the s is not pronounced, neither is the f), pouf, relief. l, unpronounced: cul, cul-de-sac, persil, soˆ ul (the l can be heard in the Midi), sourcil (but see cil below). l, pronounced (final l is almost always pronounced): There are a great number of words ending in pronounced al, el, il, ol, ul, and only a few are included here as examples: alcool, appel, austral, aval, bordel, calcul, canal, cheval, ciel, cil, col, diesel, fanal, fil ( = thread and the plural = fils: l pronounced here but fils = son(s) and here
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
35
s is pronounced), gel, gr´esil, m´eridional, miel, national, nombril (see below), occidental, oriental, p´eril, recel, rural, septentrional, sol, subtil, val, vol. The l of nombril is almost always pronounced, notwithstanding which, and inexplicably, four of the standard dictionaries available do not support this. Take your pick, but the choice must be for the l to be pronounced, witness Georges Brassens’s delightfully scabrous “Le nombril des femmes d’agents.” n, pronounced: There are just a few words ending in n where this n is pronounced and the preceding vowel is not nazalized: amen, dolmen (as in Brittany), ´ Eden, sp´ecimen. p, unpronounced: drap, galop, loup, sirop, sparadrap, trop (but with liaison the p may or may not be pronounced: trop aimable / tro’ aimable). p, pronounced: cap, clip, stop, top. s, unpronounced: Final s is a minefield with respect to pronunciation. There is no sure way of distinguishing between this letter as pronounced or as unpronounced, except by hearing it. Liaison ` pas (sounds like is to be reckoned with: sans arrˆet, vos amis, pas a “pazapas”). Words with an unpronounced s are: abc`es, abscons (R3, abstruse = un texte abscons), abus, amas, appas, appentis, bas, boutis (coverlet for bed), bras, brebis, brˆ ulis, buis, cabas, cadenas, canevas, cas, cassis (but in southern France this s is unquestionably pronounced), cervelas, chas, chˆ assis, choucas, clafoutis, clapotis, cliquetis, clos, colis, coloris, compas, compromis, courlis (curlew), cours, courtois, coutelas, croquis, cypr`es, d´ebarras, d´ebris, d´ec`es, dessous, dessus, devis, dos, ´eboulis, ´echalas, embarras, encens, enclos, engrais, exc`es, expr`es (but with express, ss is sounded), fatras (jumble), fois, fouillis, fracas, frimas, frottis (smear as in: un frottis vaginal = cervical smear), galetas, galimatias, gazouillis, glacis, glas (as in Hemingway’s Pour qui sonne le glas), gr`es, gribouillis, gris, hachis, haras, hormis, intrus (intruder), J´esus, Judas, judas (spy hole in door), jus, lambris (wood paneling on wall), las, lilas (as in the Porte des Lilas in Paris), logis, Lucas, mˆ achicoulis (machicolation = opening in fortress for despatching of missiles), marais (as in Le Marais, a rejuvenated district of Paris with splendid small palaces), mas, matelas, Nicolas, nos, obtus, obus, palais, panaris, paradis, pardessus, parvis (as in le parvis de Notre Dame), pas, pavois, permis, pervers, pilotis, pis (udder), pois, pont-levis, pouls, puis, pus, radis, ramassis (jumble, bunch of children), ras, rassis, refus, remous, roulis, rubis, sans, sous, succ`es, sursis (as in Sartre’s Le sursis), suspens, taffetas, talus, tamis, tandis que (but the s can be heard), tapis, tas, Thomas, torticolis (crick in neck), tous (as an adjective), tracas, vernis, vers. s, pronounced: Adonis, airbus, alias, ananas (the s may not be sounded here), ang´elus (as in Millet’s painting L’ang´elus in the Louvre), anus,
36
A Reference Grammar of French
arrobas, as, Atlas (mythological giant and the mountains in North Africa), atlas (atlas), bibliobus (book mobile / mobile library), bibus (movable piece of furniture for trinkets, books, etc.), bis, bitos, blockhaus, blocus, bonus (´ecologique), burnous, bus, cactus, Calmos !, cannabis, cassis (the s is not sounded in northern France), chaos, chorus, cirrus, clitoris, Cnossos (ancient capital of Crete), consensus, corpus, cosmos, couscous, Cr´esus (as in: riche comme Cr´esus), crocus, Cronos (supreme god in Greek mythology), cubitus ( = ulna: a bone in the arm; the French word is used much more than the English equivalent), cumulus, cursus, damas (the s may not be pronounced here, but the s of the Syrian capital is pronounced: Damas), d´etritus, Dionysos, diplodocus (a very common term in France for the prehistoric monster popularized by Spielberg’s Jurassic Park), eucalyptus, faci`es, ficus, fœtus, H´elas !, herp`es, hiatus, hibiscus, hum´erus, humus, infarctus, iris, jadis, la¨ıus (speech), laps (de temps), lapsus, lys (as in Balzac’s Le lys dans la vall´ee), malus (´ecologique), Mars, m´etis, minibus, minus (as in C’est un minus = He’s not very clever), mordicus (obstinately), Motus ! (Don’t let on! / Mum’s the word!), mucus, myosotis, nimbus, nounours (teddy bear), oasis, opus, os (but in the plural the s is not pronounced, according to dictionaries and grammars, although many French speakers do pronounce it and find this acceptable), ours, palmar`es, pancr´eas, papyrus, Pˆ aris (in Greek mythology, as opposed to Paris where the s is not sounded), pastis, pataqu`es, pathos, p´enis, phallus, prospectus, pubis, radius (the bone), r´ebus, rh´esus, rhinoc´eros, rictus, Romulus/Remus,1 sens, sinus, Stradivarius, syphilis, tandis que (but the unpronounced s is more elegant), tennis, terminus, test, t´etanos, thermos, tonus, tournevis, 1
Latin names are a special case in point. These names have acquired a resurgence of interest in the French population as a whole, and this is largely due to that splendid intrepid little hero Ast´erix, the stories of whom bedeck the shelves of most French speakers’ homes. It is worthy of note that the authors, Goscinny and Uderzo, would consult the pages roses of the Petit Larousse for their Latin references. There follow a number of Latin names ending in –us where the s is invariably pronounced. Some of these names have a modern French equivalent, and these are placed in parentheses by their side: Caesar Augustus (C´esar Auguste; incidentally, this Roman name lies at the etymological origin of the Spanish city Zaragoza which in French is Saragosse), Brutus, Caius, Cassius, Catullus (Catulle), Circus Maximus (Cirque Maxime), Gracchus, Lucilius, Lucretius (Lucr`ece, not to be confused with Lut`ece which was the original settlement of Paris, hence the spot called les ar`enes de Lut`ece; Lut`ece replaces Paris in the Ast´erix stories), Marcus Aurelius (Marc-Aur`ele), Maximus (Maxime), Petronius (P´etrone), Plautus (Plaute), Scipio Africanus, Spartacus. Ast´erix’s authors make great play on Latin words and especially names they often create by way of caricature: Cassius Saugrenus (strange), Cassius Mordicus, Tullius Mordicus. One could easily argue that with this permanent recognition of Ast´erix and his Roman adversaries, les Franc¸ais n’y perdent pas leur latin.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
37
tous (as pronoun), typhus, us et coutumes, ut´erus, vasistas2 (from the German Vas ist das? or What is that? = louver window, skylight), V´enus, virus, vis. Note that the s of plus may or may not be pronounced, and this depends on where it is in the sentence and its meaning. When it precedes a consonant it is silent: Il y a plus de dix filles. When it precedes a vowel, liaison occurs: C’est plus amer. When it is part of a negative, it is usually silent: Je n’en vois plus; Je ne le ferais pas non plus. When it suggests quantity, it is usually pronounced: une fois de plus; trois heures de plus. But when it is a partitive it remains silent: Elle a plus de dix ans. t, unpronounced (the final t is generally unpronounced but there are many exceptions): abricot, achat, ad´equat, affˆ ut (as in: ` a l’affˆ ut de), (aux) aguets, alphabet, apostat (as in Julien l’Apostat who abandoned his uncle’s [Constantine I] recently embraced Christian creed in favor of a return to paganism), apostolat (apostleship), apparat (as in: costume d’apparat = sumptuous/gorgeous dress), appˆ at (lure/bait), app´etit, argot, arrˆet, art, artichaut, artisanat, assaut, asticot (maggot), ballet, bandit, banquet, bardot (small sterile mule, not very common), basset, benˆet (as in: un grand benˆet = a big simpleton), bidet, billet, biscuit, bistro(t), blet, bonnet, (un pied) bot (club foot: Byron had one), boulot, bouquet, bout, bruit, brˆ ulot, budget, cabaret, cabinet, cabriolet, cachet, cachot, cadet, cageot, caillot, capot, carnet, cassoulet, castrat (castrato), c´elibat, certificat, chahut, chariot, Charlot (Charlie Chaplin), chat, chenet (firedog, andiron = the metal pieces supporting logs in a fireplace), chevet, chocolat, circuit, coffret, complot, conduit, conflit, conglom´erat, constat (assessment / certified report), consulat, court, coˆ ut, cr´edit, creuset, criquet, crochet, culot, d´ebat, d´ebit, d´ebut, d´ecrepit (as in: un vieux / un immeuble d´ecr´epit), d´efaut, d´evot, doctorat, doigt, ´eclat, enduit, ´erudit (scholar), escargot, esprit, estaminet (R3 = small inn), fart (skiers should know this), fat (the t can sometimes be heard), fausset (as in: d’une voix de fausset = in a falsetto voice), feuillet, filet, flot, fort, fret, fruit, fˆ ut, gabarit, galet, gilet, goulet, goˆ ut, grenat, guilleret (perky/jaunty), habitat, hoquet, hublot, ˆılot, jet (but for the airplane the t is pronounced), Judas Iscariot, juillet, lacet, laur´eat, lingot (especially lingot d’or, and there are lots of these in Fort Knox), lot (see Lot in the following at, matelot, minet, list), magistrat, magnat, magot, mandat, marmot, mˆ moˆ ut, mulot, muscadet, muscat, noviciat (religious apprenticeship, as in: faire son noviciat), nuit, orphelinat, palˆot, paquet, Parigot (R1 = Parisian), parquet, patronat, pavot, pet (R1 = fart), piolet, piquet, pistolet, plat, plot (de d´epart = starting block in sport), portrait, pot, pr´elat, professorat, projet, prol´etariat, pugilat, quart, quolibet (jibe), rabiot, ragoˆ ut, rapiat (mean, skinflint), rat, r´ecit, rejet, reliquat (remainder, rest, after effects 2
Originates in a question asked through a counter or office window.
38
A Reference Grammar of French
of an illness), ren´egat (renegade), r´epit (as in: travailler sans r´epit), ricochet, rivet, roitelet (pathetic little king, tin-pot king), rot, sabot, sachet, salut, sanglot, sanscrit, secr´etariat, s´enat, soldat, sort, sot, statut, subit, substitut, sujet, suppˆot (R3 = fiend as in: le suppˆot de Satan / du diable = Satan’s henchman), surcroˆıt, syndicat, tabouret, tantinet, tantˆot, thermostat, ticket, tiret, tort, tˆot, toupet, tout (as adjective), tripot (gambling den), trot, valet, vivat (cheering), wagonnet. Note that the st of Christ is not pronounced in J´esus Christ, but it is when J´esus is omitted: le Christ. t, pronounced: aoˆ ut (but the t is by no means always pronounced), audimat (audience ratings), audit, azimut(s) (as in: des arrestations tous azimuts = wholesale arrests), bath (wonderful, great, R1 but going out of fashion), brut, compost, concept (the p is pronounced as well), correct, cricket (the game), dot, est, Fahrenheit, flirt, fret (freight), gadget, granit(e), huit, infect, kit, Lot (the department), luth, mammouth, mat (as in: un ton mat; note that the t of mˆ at above is not sounded), maths, net, ouest, pr´et´erit, prurit (intense itching, pruritus), rut, scout, sept, soit ! (agreed / so be it), yacht, zut ! x, unpronounced: afflux, (c)eux, courroux (R3 = wrath), creux, doux, flux, houx, preux (R3 as in: Roland fut un preux chevalier = Roland was a valiant knight), reflux, roux, toux. This category includes plurals: canaux, chevaux, cheveux, fanaux, poux; and names: Des Grieux (of Manon Lescaut fame), Sioux. x, pronounced: Cadix (C´ adiz, Spain, but here the x is pronounced as a z), coccyx (as –ksis), codex, larynx, lynx, onyx, ph´enix/phœnix, pyrex, silex, sphinx as in Ingres’s Œdipe et le Sphinx, Styx, thorax. 3. There now follows a miscellaneous series of words, some referred to above, where there can be uncertainty, even for some French speakers in a few cases, over the pronunciation. This list includes comments and explanations: abasourdi
abbaye abrupt acrobatie ad´equat aiguille
The s is pronounced as a z. Some French speakers pronounce the s as ss, doubtless on analogy with sourd. The aye is fully pronounced as ei (like pays, listed later). The pt is pronounced. The t is pronounced as an s. This does not apply to acrobate. The quat is pronounced qwat. The ui is pronounced ui but in aguicher, for instance, the u is not sounded but merely keeps the g as a hard sound. Similarly the u of guichet is not sounded.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
aiguiser
almanach
amygdale aoˆ utien
appendice aquarelle aquarium archange aulne automne bacille
baptˆeme baril Bengal benjamin(e) benz`ene biceps bled brasero cerf charisme chef d’œuvre cheik(h) chelem chenil
39
The hard g is followed by an i. However, one cannot exclude the retention of the u which is not uncommon in some parts of France. In some central and more southern regions of France, the ch is pronounced as a k. In the north, and west, it is not pronounced. ´va de Villers and Le petit Robert offer the Marie-E latter pronunciation. The Oxford Hachette gives both. So take your pick. The g is not pronounced. The a and the oˆ u of aoˆ u are pronounced as separate letters, as distinct from aoˆ ut. The t sounds like s (vacationer / holidaymaker in August). The en is pronounced as in the French pain. The qua is pronounced as kwa. The qua is pronounced as kwa. The ch is pronounced k. The l is not pronounced. The m is not pronounced. The ll is pronounced as a single l, as in bal. This differs from faucille, Manille, bille and so on, where the ll sounds like the y in rayon. However, this last y sound as in rayon is common enough and tolerated. The p is not pronounced. Similarly: baptiser and Jean-Baptiste. The l may be pronounced or not pronounced. The en is pronounced as in pain, i.e., nazalized. The en is pronounced as in pain, i.e., nazalized. The en is pronounced as in pain, i.e., nazalized. The ps is pronounced, as in forceps, triceps. The d is pronounced. The s is pronounced as a z. Generally speaking, the f is not pronounced. See nerf/serf. The ch is pronounced k. The f is not pronounced here. In chef alone it is pronounced. The ei is pronounced `e. Chel is pronounced chl (le grand chelem = the grand slam). The l may or may not be pronounced.
40
A Reference Grammar of French
chœur chol´era chorus cinq
cliquetis clown co¨ıt credo cr´eer dam
d´ecliqueter diphtongue dompter ecz´ema ´equateur ´equation ´equerre ´equidistant esprit humain exempt
expr`es express exsangue
The ch is pronounced k. The ch is pronounced k. The ch is pronounced k. The q is pronounced when isolated, and before a vowel or mute h. When before a consonant, it may be, and often is, dropped. The e is silent. Thus: klikti. See d´ecliqueter. The ow is pronounced ou as in clou. coitus: the o and the ¨ı are pronounced separately. The t is pronounced. The e is closed as: ´e. See veto. No sound intervenes between ´e and er. Pronounced as in English, and only used in: au (grand) dam de: Elle a abandonn´e ses ´etudes au (grand) dam de ses parents (She has abandoned her studies to the great displeasure of her parents). The second e is silent. This is similar to cliquetis. The ph is pronounced f. The p is not pronounced. But it is in r´edempteur/ ion. The c is pronounced as a g. The qua is pronounced kwa. The qua is pronounced kwa. The que is pronounced eke (set square). The qui is pronounced cu. The t is not pronounced here. Similarly with Port-au-Prince in Haiti. In the masculine form, in France, neither the p nor the t is pronounced. In the feminine form, the t is pronounced: Selon le dogme catholique, la Vierge Marie ´etait exempte de toute souillure. For Quebec variations see prompt below which is a much more common adjective. The s is not pronounced. This is an adverb, as in: Il l’a fait expr`es. The ss is pronounced s. This is an adjective: un train/verdict express. The ending –gue is pronounced as a g, as in langue. Compare with the feminine adjectives aigu¨e, contigu¨e, exigu¨e where the u is pronounced. The most recent spelling has aig¨ ue, etc.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
fac´etie fait
fat gage¨ ure galop gars gay
gentilshommes
gong grog hall hennir Ignace, Saint imbroglio import-export ineptie interpeller
41
The t is pronounced as an s. The t is not pronounced in the plural. It is pronounced sometimes before a pause, and in certain expressions: au fait, en fait, de fait. Generally the t is not pronounced. The e¨ ure is pronounced as the u in pur, not as in leur. The p is not pronounced, like sirop. The rs is not pronounced. = homosexual. The ay is pronounced ai, as in paix with open e, i.e., no diphthong as in English. Thus same as gai. Although all available dictionaries state unequivocally that the first s is pronounced, many French speakers would not pronounce it. The second g is generally pronounced. The second g is pronounced. The h is pronounced as a closed o. The h is aspirate: le hall. The e is pronounced as in reine, or the English pen. The gn is pronounced as with ni in English pinion. The g may or may not be pronounced. The ts are not pronounced. The t is pronounced as an s. This verb invites confusion and hesitation among most French speakers, for a number of reasons. First, although the verb is nearly always written with two lls, Le bon usage suggests that it may be written with one (interpeler), but this spelling never appears in dictionaries, or any written material for that matter. Yet many French speakers think that the correct spelling is interpeler, on analogy with (r)appeler. Second, when written with two lls, dictionaries are not unanimous in the pronunciation of interpeller. They offer mute e or ´ e. The logic to be followed is to accept the acute accent. But hardly any French speaker pronounces the first e of –peller with an acute e. They pronounce the e in question as a mute e. Third, dictionaries maintain that all tenses retain the two lls (interpelle, interpellais, interpellerais, j’ai interpell´e), but in all these cases the e in question is not
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A Reference Grammar of French
Isra¨el jonc joug klaxon
legs
macho magnat Michel-Ange Mickey moelle mœurs musc nerf nuptial orchid´ee papeterie
patriarche pays poˆele pr´esage prompt
sounded. The answer seems to be, despite the illogicality, to keep the two lls in spelling and pronounce the e as mute. The s is pronounced as ss, not as a z. The c is not pronounced, like banc. The g is not pronounced. The n is usually pronounced, although one cannot exclude the nazalization of the o, and the loss of the n. The g is pronounced by just about everyone nowadays, but not the s. To be added is that, the sounding of the g was once optional, witness Le petit Larousse of 1980 and Le petit Robert of 1982. The ch is pronounced as in Spanish: matcho. The gn may be pronounced separately as g and n, or nazalized as in gagner. The ch is pronounced k. = Mickey Mouse. The ey is pronounced as an acute e: ´ e. The moe is pronounced mwa. Same for moelleux. The s may or may not be pronounced. The sc is pronounced sk. The f is never pronounced. See cerf/serf. The t sounds as an s: le lit nuptial, la marche nuptiale. The ch is pronounced as k. Dictionaries offer three possible pronunciations of the first e. Mute, acute accent and grave accent. By far the most common is the grave accent, which is clearly the easiest to pronounce. The ch is pronounced as sh, as in cracher. The ay is pronounced as ei: see abbaye. The poˆe is pronounced pwa. The s is pronunced as a z. The pronunciation varies here. In France, in the masculine form, neither the p nor the t is pronounced. In the feminine form (prompte), the t is pronounced (Elle est prompte). However, ´va de Villers (Quebec), the according to Marie-E p and the t may be pronounced in the
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
pugnacit´e quartz quatuor quiz quota rapt requiem respect
respecter responsabilit´e responsable restaurer rhododendron sch´ema schisme schizophr´enie sculpter second serf sirop solennel soˆ ul spartiate stagnant
stand stop sugg´erer
43
masculine form. In the feminine form the p may or may not be pronounced but the t is certainly pronounced. One suspects that the Quebec possibilities are infected by the English where p and t are always sounded. The g and the n are pronounced separately. The qua is pronounced as kwa. The qua is pronounced kwa. The qui is pronounced as kwi. The quo is pronounced ko. The pt is pronounced. The qui is pronounced with a wi. Neither the c nor the t is pronounced. However, when this noun is followed by humain, in the set expression respect humain (consideration of, or deference towards, others), the c is pronounced. The first e is pronounced as in prˆet. The first e is pronounced as in prˆet. Likewise: Robespierre. The first e is pronounced as in prˆet. The first e is pronounced as in prˆet. The den is pronounced as ain in pain. The sch is pronounced sh as in English shoe. The sch is pronounced sh as in English shoe. The schi is pronounced ski. The p is not pronounced. The c is pronounced as a g. But f´econd retains the c as in contre. Generally speaking the f is not pronounced, but this is less clear than with cerf. See cerf/nerf. The p is not pronounced. The enn is pronounced as an. The l is or is not pronounced. The ti is pronounced as si. The two letters gn are pronounced separately, as in English, and not nasalized as in cogner. Similarly, stagner. The d is pronounced. The p is pronounced. Both gs are pronounced but in lax pronunciation one g is dropped.
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A Reference Grammar of French
supporter
tch`eque tenace/t´enacit´e tertio thym toast transept varech veto z´enith zinc zoo
Here a noun. The er is pronounced approximately as in English, i.e., less open than in an ` ere ending. It must be said that this English noun is being supplanted by supporteur which reflects the pronounciation more clearly. The tch is pronounced ch as in church. In the adjective, the e is mute but in the noun it is an acute e: ´ e. The second t is pronounced as an s. The m is not pronounced. Thus, rhymes with ´etain. The s and t are pronounced. The pt is pronounced as pt, not like sept where the p is silent. The ch is pronounced as a k. The e is pronounced as ´ e, as in donn´e. See credo. The t is pronounced. The c is pronounced as a g. Only one o is pronounced.
It is also worthy of note that the penultimate e of adverbs ending in –emment, from adjectives ending in –ent, is pronounced as an a. Here is a selection (see also Chapter 53 on adverbs, Section 53.1): cons´equemment, ´eloquemment, ´eminemment, ´evidemment, fr´equemment, (im)patiemment, (im)prudemment, (in)consciemment, (in)diff´eremment, indolemment, innocemment, n´egligemment, pertinemment, pr´ec´edemment, sciemment, violemment. 4. Letters in French are masculine: un/le a, un/le b, un/le e, un/le h, un/le i, un/le r, un/le s and so on. Notice that, in general, no elision takes place: no loss of the e in le with the spelling out of letters. However, this is not a watertight rule for one does come across: l’i, l’r, l’s and so on. It seems much safer to avoid elision since this makes the sound much clearer. One oddity from the masculine gender of letters derives from the dual way of saying low-rent apartment / council flat / house. One says either: un ` loyer mod´er´e. HLM or une habitation a
2.7 Division of words into syllables If possible, it is advisable to begin each syllable after a word break with a consonant: a-ni-mal, ra-me-ner, rai-son. For example: un billet de cent euros qu’elle m’ordonnait d’apporter au contrˆo-leur. Make the division between two consonants: lais-ser, protes-tant, cin-quan-te, at-ter-rir, fil-let-te. For example: J’ai vu la dame aux grosses lunettes noires . . . Elle
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
45
` ma rencontre . . . mais j’avais la sensation que m’attendait, le chauf-feur est venu a nous avions tout com-pris . . . Certain combinations of consonants are never separated: th, ch, pl, pr, bl, br, cl, cr, gl, gn, gr, tr, dr, vr (i.e., those consonantal groups that may occur at the beginning of a word): ca-tho-li-que, ca-cher, peu-ple, fai-ble, si`e-cle, r´e-gler, vien-drai, r´e-gner, bor-gne.
2.8 Stress and intonation The tonic accent in French, or in any language for that matter, consists of a special weight or strengthening of sound given to a syllable or group of words. Those syllables or groups of words without this tonic accent are called atonic or unstressed. In all languages, stress has a great influence on sound, English, Spanish and Italian being excellent illustrations of this. Stress is not so important in French as in these other three languages quoted, for words would still be understood in French even if the stress did not coincide with normal patterns. To take one example, if one did not place the stress on the penultimate syllable in the English word intonation, and if one said for example intonation (i.e., stress on the first syllable), the meaning would not be so clear. Similarly, the Span´ n requires a heavy stress on the last syllable, and the Italian ish entonacio intonazione on the penultimate syllable, otherwise there could be a failure to understand. The French equivalent, intonation, with only a slight stress on the last articulated syllable, does not invite confusion in the same way. In French words considered in isolation, the stress falls on the last syllable, or on the penultimate syllable when the last syllable is a mute e: v´erit´e, sentiment, indiff´erence, montagne, ils d´esesp`erent. In groups of French words, the stress falls on the last articulated syllable of a group of words, not on the individual word: Prenez votre livre, Je pars demain, Il s’y rendra cet apr`es-midi, Qu’est-ce que vous en pensez ? The definite and indefinite articles (le/un etc.), demonstrative or possessive adjectives (ce, cette, mon, mes, etc.), certain pronouns (me, te, le, etc.), prepositions (par, pour, dans, etc.) and most conjunctions (et, mais, donc) do not have a tonic stress and are called atonic. It seems more helpful to call this special weight on a syllable a stress, rather than an accent since the latter term can suggest either a local or regional way of expressing oneself, or the orthographical signs placed above or underneath a letter to modify their sound. The French language has no alternative word available for stress, and uses accent for both stress and orthographical signs. Stress on a syllable needs to be distinguished from the idea of insistence which has an impact on a syllable when it is pronounced with a special
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A Reference Grammar of French
stress. This stress may be called affective or expressive and does not exclude the ordinary stress on a syllable: Mais c’est incroyable !/d´etestable !/ex´ecrable !; C’est ´epouvantable ce qu’elle a fait !; N’oubliez pas de revenir avant minuit ! The tone with which a person expresses him/herself is also important. Tone may be defined as the degree of musicality or pitch level at which a syllable may be pronounced, such as a high tone or low tone. A sentence may be uttered with an imperious, professorial, playful, gentle or childish tone: “Soyez les bienvenus,” s’exclama-t-il sur un ton imp´erieux/doctoral; “Mais je t’en prie,” m’a-t-elle dit d’un ton badin. The sounds one utters to form words and phrases rarely follow a uniform pattern. They entail stress, musicality, elongation of syllables, a staccato or jarring style. A rising and descending intonation invests a French sentence with two distinct parts. The first part corresponds to a rising intonation which reaches the highest point, and the second corresponds to a descending intonation which goes down to the lowest point: Je voudrais savoir (rising) quand les enfants vont revenir (descending). Interrogative sentences do not have a descending part: Quand est-ce qu’elle viendra ? (Viendra reaches the highest point of the sentence.) Exclamatory sentences usually have a descending part: Qu’est-ce qu’il est bˆete/cr´etin/idiot/d´ebrouillard/intelligent !
2.9 Liaison Liaison is the phenomenon which, in closely linked groups of words, causes the normally silent consonant of a word to be sounded before the initial vowel of the following word. In some circumstances, liaison is observed while in others it does not apply. There is a further category where liaison is optional. The following tables illustrate how liaison functions:
Liaison observed Circumstances
Examples
between qualifier and noun
ses amis; deux amis; de grands arbres; and in the well-known words of Jean Gabin to Michelle Morgan in Quai des brumes (Marcel Carn´e, 1938): “Tu as de beaux yeux, tu sais.” The s or x in these cases sounds like a z. Note that an adjective ending in a nasal vowel is denasalized in liaison and is pronounced like the corresponding feminine form; le prochain arrˆet for example is pronounced as though the word prochain had an e at the end.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
47
Liaison observed (cont.) Circumstances
Examples
between pronoun and verb / verb and pronoun between monosyllabic adverb or preposition and article, noun, pronoun, adjective or adverb after the conjunction (not interrogative) quand after words ending in a nasal vowel: en, on, un, mon, ton, son, bien, rien
elles ont; nous avons; allez-y
sous une chaise; moins utile; plus important
quand il vient Note that partial denasalization occurs with: en, on, un, mon, ton, son. This depends upon a variety of factors (e.g., register, place of origin): mon ami. With bien and rien denasalization does not occur, although even here the final n in both cases could be heard a little: C’est bien arrang´e, Je n’ai rien ajout´e.
Liaison does not apply Circumstances
Examples
before numeral beginning with a vowel after et before oui between singular subject and verb after words ending in a nasal vowel not specified above before words with aspirate h
les onze de l’´equipe et alors mais oui le soldat est parti selon eux; bon a ` rien. However, when bon a ` rien is a noun, liaison occurs. un h´eros; un hibou. Note that R1 speakers may disregard the aspirate h (les handicap´es, les haricots, les Hollandais) but this feature meets with disapproval from careful R2 speakers who prefer the retention of the aspirate h. Uncertainty reigns with hy`ene: l’hy`ene or la hy`ene, but the latter is preferred.
There are on the other hand circumstances where liaison is optional. Practice may be summed up in the simple formula: the more formal the language the more possibility there is for liaison. The more informal the language, the fewer the liaisons. The dividing line may normally be situated within
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A Reference Grammar of French
the R2 register: a slightly higher register is struck when liaison is made. Use of liaison is often accompanied by an element of emphasis.
Liaison optional Circumstances
Examples
R1/2
R2/3
between plural noun and verb, adjective or adverb
des mots impossibles a ` comprendre
no liaison between mots and impossibles no liaison between trains and arrivent no liaison between suis and en no liaison between est and en no liaison between pas and obtenu
liaison between s and i
between verb and past participle, infinitive, adjective, adverb or prepositional expression
Les trains arrivent a ` l’heure. Je suis en retard. Elle est en retard. Elle ne l’a pas obtenu.
liaison between s and a liaison between s and e liaison between t and e liaison between s and o
The application or non-application of this last group of liaisons may be debatable, according to speed of speech, context, age of speaker and so on. What is certain is that in some circumstances there is never liaison. The t in the following combination would not be sounded: l’esprit humain. However, a t is usually introduced to facilitate the pronunciation of two vowels, as in the unfunny “comic” film with Brigitte Bardot, Babette s’en va-t-en guerre (Cristian-Jacque, 1959), and the traditional song originating in the early eighteenth century: “Malbrough s’en va-t-en guerre.” Likewise, an s is sometimes introduced to facilitate passage from one vowel to another: Vas-y, Restes-y. It must be said that, although one says and writes (see above) les onze de l’´equipe and also le onze (number eleven) / le onzi`eme garc¸on / la onzi`eme fille, one could easily hear in a lower register une fille d’onze ans instead of une fille de onze ans. Whereas one would make liaison with the t in le petit homme, it is not made with l’esprit humain. With pas encore, liaison with the s is optional.
2.10 Elision Elision is the loss in pronunciation of one of the final vowels a, e, i preceding a word beginning with a vowel or mute h. Elisions in pronunciation are not always marked in writing: Pronunciation: Elle a presqu’ ´echou´e.
Writing: Elle a presque ´echou´e.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
49
When elision takes place, the elided vowel is replaced by an apostrophe: l’homme, l’heure, l’eau, l’´eglise, l’or, Je l’ai vue. Elision takes place in the following cases: 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
10. 11. 12.
When an unstressed pronoun precedes the pronouns en and y, or before a verb: Tu l’as entendue, cette voix ?, Je l’y ai vue, Elle a r´eussi : je l’en f´elicite. However, when the pronoun la is stressed, no elision takes place: Laisse` ton fr`ere. la entrer, Envoie-la ouvrir, Donne-la a With unstressed pronouns, je, me, te, se, le: j’ai, Elle m’entend, Je t’invite, Il s’avance, On l’aperc¸oit, Je m’en doute, Il s’y perd. However, when the pronoun le is stressed, elision does not take place: ` ta sœur. Fais-le asseoir, Fais-le entrer, Donne-le a There is elision with the following words: de, ne, que, jusque, lorsque, puisque, quoique: la voiture d’Andr´e, Elle n’a pas de voiture, Je veux qu’elle parte, Elle est venue jusqu’ici, lorsqu’elle est arriv´ee, lorsqu’en l’an deux mille, quoiqu’elle soit d’accord, avant qu’il ne parte. With the pronoun ce before the pronoun en, and initial e and a of a simple or compound form of the verb ˆetre: c’est, c’´etait, ¸c’eˆ ut ´et´e, C’en est fait. But this is not the case with avoir: C ¸a a ´et´e difficile, C ¸a a fondu, although one could not entirely exclude C ¸’a fondu . . . A careful speaker would probably avoid the cacophony of two as in any case. In the noun presqu’ˆıle, and the pronoun quelqu’un. But presque does not elide in writing in other cases: presque entier, presque achev´e, quelque autre, although in speech it probably would. When entre forms an initial element of the five verbs: s’entr’aimer, entr’apercevoir, s’entr’appeler, s’entr’avertir, s’entr’´egorger. The Acad´emie no longer recommends the apostrophe after entre for the following verbs and nouns: s’entraccorder, s’entraccuser, entracte, s’entradmirer, entraide, s’entraider, entrouverture, entrouvrir. Entr’ouvrir has now fallen into disuse, and is replaced by entrouvrir so that one only sees now: une fenˆetre entrouverte. Entre alone is not elided in writing: entre amis, entre eux, entre autres. When the conjunction si precedes il(s), it is elided: S’il vient (but si elle vient), S’ils partent (but si elles partent). Elision does not take place before the noun un, or before oui, huit, huitain, huitaine, huiti`eme, onze, onzi`eme (but l’once = ounce as in gold weight), yacht, yak: Le oui est n´ecessaire, Il m’a fait signe que oui, le un, le huit et le onze (as in the National Lottery). Neither does it take place before proper names: Yougoslavie, Y´emen, Yucatan. Although the figure un does not entail elision, the indefinite article does. Compare the two sentences: L’inflation a augment´e de un pour cent and Voici le roman d’un auteur russe. But one cannot exclude elision in some cases: Je crois / Il dit qu’oui, le train d’onze heures. There is some
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A Reference Grammar of French
hesitation here, notably in the lower registers. However, one does not ` la une ( = on page one of a newspaper). make elision with: a 13. Ouate is an interesting case for both la ouate and l’ouate are attested. 14. With names of authors, elision occurs with de but one also sees the e retained, notably in writing: Avez-vous vu les pi`eces d’/de Ionesco ?, Les po`emes d’/de Arthur Rimbaud, La Peste d’/de Albert Camus, Les chansons de ´dith France d’/de Yves Montand. On a DVD of the film La Mˆome (life of E Piaf), one reads: Un film de Olivier Dahan. It is legitimately argued that the retention of the e here suggests insistence or emphasis, or clarity as in: le contenu du e-mail as against le contenu de l’e-mail.
2.11 Spelling Spelling causes great difficulty for many students of French, whether they be English or French speakers. English spelling itself is notoriously demanding, given the variations of individual words over the centuries. Even the globally famous Shakespeare’s name has not remained stable. Carlyle writes, for instance, Shakspeare. Below are a variety of features in French where spelling plays a considerable role, either because of similarity of sound to that of other words, or because of attempts to regularize words over the centuries, as is the case with American English: color instead of colour, encyclopedia instead of encyclopaedia, z instead of s and so on. (See Section 2.13 for the spelling modifications suggested by the Conseil sup´erieur de la langue franc¸aise in 1990.) Before we embark on the various aspects of spelling, we would do well to consider for a moment the con` l’orthogaffe” (L’Express, March 18, tents of an article by Olivier Faure: “Gare a 2010). The play on words orthographe/orthogaffe derives from gaffe = blunder. The author refers to “les ravages des e-mails et des textos sur la production ´ecrite de leur personnel.” The possessive leur refers to companies whose “cabinets de recrutement font maintenant de l’orthographe un crit`ere de s´election.” For all the attention paid to dictations in France, French students are increasingly subject to orthographic torments, and such lacunae imperil their job prospects. Shabbily drawn-up r´esum´es or CVs, peppered with spelling errors, alienate employers. 2.11.1 Homonyms Pairs, groups of individual words, and groups of several words together which are identical in sound but which are different in meaning are called homonyms, and are an obvious cause of ambiguity in any language. French seems to possess an abundance of homonyms, as opposed to Spanish which has very few. There are homonyms which are differentiated by gender but have identical spelling, those that are differentiated by both gender and spelling, those that have no external distinction either in gender or in spelling, and finally those that have the same sound but are spelled in different ways. What concerns us here is the latter group which can cause
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
51
uncertainty even for native speakers. The first three groups that entail gender difficulties are treated in Chapter 9. Homonyms that differ in spelling only embrace a whole range of parts of speech, from nouns to adjectives and verbs, and in this case they are individual words. These are treated in the first list below; the second list deals with groups of words. In the case of homonyms as single words differentiated by spelling only, the danger of ambiguity arises only if the words belong to the same word class, or closely related word classes. In other words, it is unlikely that the preposition vers be confused with vert the adjective, or vers meaning worm, or that tends, the second-person singular of tendre, be confused with taon the noun, whereas the identical pronunciation of dessin and dessein, or close-to-identical pronunciation of tache and tˆ ache could provoke difficulty in understanding, although this is almost inconceivable for a native speaker. In the following list, only those examples of homonyms involving words belonging to the same word class or closely related word classes (e.g., noun and adjective) are given. See also Chapter 9, Section 9.4 for more information on this topic. 1. Pairs of words, or three or four similar-sounding words bal M ball (dance) balle F ball (for playing), bale, bullet
3
bar barre
M F
bar (for serving drinks) bar (of wood, metal)
but3
M
butte
F
cens´e
adjective
sens´e
adjective
aim, goal (in soccer and figurative) hillock (as in: the Butte Montmartre, the Buttes Chaumont in Paris) ´l´eonore n’est pas supposed (e.g. E cens´ee le savoir) sensible
chair chaire cher/ch`ere
F F adjective
flesh pulpit dear (both meanings)
capital capitale
M F
capital, assets capital (city), capital letter
central (t´el´ephonique) centrale (´electrique, nucl´eaire)
M
telephone exchange/switchboard
F
(generating) station, power/nuclear plant
Generally the t is not pronounced here, although its pronunciation is acceptable.
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A Reference Grammar of French
4
chˆene chaˆıne
M F
oak tree chain, television channel
col colle
M F
collar, pass (in mountain) glue, paste
coq coque
M F
cock(erel) shell, hull (of boat)
cours
M
cour court (de tennis/ squash, etc.)
F M
course ( = au cours de), waterway ( = cours d’eau), class (for teaching), private school court, (court)yard court (sports)
fait faˆıte fˆete
M M F
fact apex (of roof) festival, party
foie foi fois
M F F
liver faith time, occasion
g`ene gˆene
M F
gene discomfort
hall4 halle
M F
entrance, hall, vestibule (often plural) covered market
maire mer m`ere
M F F
mayor sea mother
pair paire p`ere
M F M
peer pair father
parti partie
M F
party (political, etc.), decision part, game (e.g., of soccer)
pois poids poix
M M F
pea weight pitch
pot peau
M F
pot skin
reine rˆene renne
F F M
queen rein (for animal, child) reindeer
The pronunciation of the vowel in hall and halle is different. The first sounds like a closed o, while the second sounds like the a in balle.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation sel selle
M F
53 salt saddle
2. Similar-sounding groups of words or letters –´e/–er/–ez –´e past participle ending J’ai ferm´e le portail. –er infinitive ending Pour fermer la porte, poussez le verrou. –ez imperative ending Fermez la porte, s’il vous plaˆıt. es/est/et/ai/aie/aies/ait/aient es second-person singular of ˆetre est third-person singular of ˆetre et conjunction = and ai aie
first-person singular of avoir first-person singular subjunctive of avoir
Similarly, aies, ait, aient a/as/` a a as ` a
ce/c’ ceux
´milie est jeune. E Lucile est intelligente et courageuse. J’ai dix ans. Il faut que j’aie du courage. Il faut que tu aies beaucoup de cran.
third-person singular of avoir second-person singular of avoir preposition
quel(s)/quelle(s)/qu’elle(s) quel(s)/quelle(s) interrogative/ exclamatory adjective qu’elle(s) contraction of que and elle(s) se (s’) / ce (c’) / ceux se
Tu es jeune.
third-person reflexive pronoun demonstrative adjective masculine demonstrative pronoun
Adeline a cinq ans. Tu as froid ? ` Paris. Benjamin est a Quel courage ! / Quelle voiture ! / Quels hommes ? Voici le mod`ele qu’elle a choisi. R´emi se lave les mains / s’habille. ` Tours que ce garc¸on / C’est a Balzac est n´e. Les kiwis sont ceux que je pr´ef`ere.
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ces/ses/c’est/s’est/sais/sait ces demonstrative adjective (plural) ses possessive adjective (plural) c’est auxiliary verb ˆetre preceded by elided demonstrative pronoun s’est third-person reflexive pronoun with auxiliary verb ˆetre sais first-person singular of the verb savoir sait third-person singular of the verb savoir on/ont on ont soi/sois/soit/soient soi
sois
soit
soient
ces oranges ses parents C’est dangereux.
Elle s’est lav´ee.
Je ne sais pas. Robin sait compter/lire/nager.
third-person singular pronoun third-person plural of the verb avoir
On arrive demain.
reflexive personal pronoun relating to no person in particular second-person singular of the subjunctive form of ˆetre / imperative of ˆetre third-person singular of the subjunctive form of the verb ˆetre
Il faut faire preuve de confiance en soi.
third-person plural of the subjunctive form of the verb ˆetre
Elles ont raison.
` l’abri / Il faut que tu sois a Sois tranquille !
Je ne crois pas qu’elle soit arriv´ee. When used in isolation to suggest agreed, of course, the t is pronounced: Je me suis tromp´ee, soit, mais. . . (I was wrong, very well, but. . .). J’ai peur qu’ils ne soient pas revenus.
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
sans/sent/s’en/c’en sans sent s’en
third-person singular of the verb sentir contraction of se + en
c’en
contraction of ce + en
dans/d’en dans d’en
preposition = in contraction of de + en
C´eline est venue sans parapluie. C ¸a sent bon.5 Valentin s’en aperc¸oit imm´ediatement. Vous faites du bruit, c’en est trop. Laetitia est dans la cuisine. Du pain, je viens d’en couper une tranche.
quelque(s) / quelque / quel(s) que / quelle(s) que quelque(s) indefinite determinant quelque invariable adverb + adjective quel(s) que / indefinite adjective + quelle(s) que subordinate conjunction
Nicolas arrivera dans quelques heures. Quelque app´etissants que soient tes gˆ ateaux . . . quel que soit ton projet professionnel / quelles que soient ses intentions
la/l’a/l’as/l` a la
La table, je la vois.
l’a l’as l` a ` sa/c¸a/c¸a sa ¸ca
` ¸ca
5
preposition = without
55
definite article or pronoun (both cases: feminine) contraction of le/la + a contraction of le/la + as adverb of place = there, here possessive adjective demonstrative pronoun adverb of place
L’a-t-il vu(e) ? L’as-tu fini(e) ? Sabrina est l` a depuis une semaine. O` u est sa sacoche ? J’ai regard´e le feuilleton mais je n’ai pas trouv´e ¸ca passionnant. ` et l` On observe, ¸ca a, quelques affiches.
Note the difference in pronunciation between pressent (from presser) where –ent is not pronounced, and pressent (from pressentir) where –ent is pronounced nasally.
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prˆet(s)/pr`es prˆet(s) pr`es plus tˆot / plutˆot plus tˆot plutˆot
quand/quant/qu’en quand quant (` a) qu’en ou/o` u ou
o` u quoique/quoi que quoique quoi que pourquoi/pour quoi pourquoi pour quoi
adjective = ready adverb of place
Tu es prˆet ? / Vous ˆetes prˆets ? La gare est tout pr`es.
adverbial expression of time adverb suggesting preference
Le boulangerie ouvre plus tˆot que d’habitude. ` la Ces raisins sont r´ecolt´es a main plutˆot qu’` a la machine.
conjunction of time preposition = as for/to contraction of que + en
Quand vas-tu m’appeler ? ` demain, je ne sais Quant a pas. Ce probl`eme n’est simple qu’en apparence.
coordinating conjunction adverb of place, time, situation
Pour trouver la signification, consulte un dictionnaire ou (ou bien) un lexique. O` u est-ce que tu habites ? / le jour o` u Aur´elie est venue
conjunction = although relative pronoun = whatever
Quoique les fenˆetres soient ouvertes il faut chaud. Quoi que tu d´ecides, tu me pr´eviens.
adverb or conjunction = why relative pronoun = for what
Pourquoi l’as-tu dit ? Cet homme, on le condamne pour quoi ?
The following children’s nursery rhyme (comptine enfantine) illustrates perfectly variations (four) in spelling but uniformity in sound. Foix is a town in the southwest of France: “Il ´etait une fois / Une marchande de foie / Qui vendait du foie / Dans la ville de Foix / Elle se dit: ‘Ma foi / C’est la derni`ere fois / Que je vends du foie / dans la ville de Foix.’” In the authors’ experience, one sings une marchande de foie but Henriette Walter suggests the masculine form: un marchand de foie. Following on from this children’s nursery rhyme one comes across tongue twisters (le virelangue), which are as plentiful in French as they are in English,
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or in other Romance languages for that matter. Needless to say, tongue twisters in any language do not contain too much sense or logic, relying as they do on alliteration. The reader could try the following which are common in French, and the first of which is the most frequently and universally met: Les chaussettes de l’archiduchesse sont-elles s`eches et archis`eches ? Ton th´e t’a-t-il ˆot´e ta toux ? Tes laitues naissent-elles ? Si tes laitues naissent, mes laitues naˆıtront. Pauvre petit pˆecheur, prends patience pour pouvoir prendre plusieurs petits poissons. Un chasseur sachant chasser sait chasser sans son chien de chasse. Le mur murant (enclosing) Paris rend Paris murmurant. This last tongue twister calls for an explanation. A wall was built around Paris in the nineteenth century and had various points of entry, called p´eages (tollgates), the same word as that used for modern expressways/motorways. Probably the most famous of tollgates in all literature and opera can be found in the third act of Puccini’s La Boh`eme where the dying Mimi meets her lover Rodolfo. A further illustration of the use of the alliterative s underlines the calm and fragility of the night. The poem, composed by Ipzo l’Animot, is called Astrolˆ atre. We quote the first six lines: “Une nuit sans sommeil, sans nuage et sans lune, / Sur le sable noirci au sommet d’une dune, / Sous l’espace assoupi, berc´e par le silence, / Quelques grains de poussi`ere en essaim ensemencent / L’oc´ean et poinc¸onnent le ciel o` u s’inspirent / Les Parques dont les sombres desseins r´everb`erent / L’infini . . .” ` une passante”), evokes the aggressive Baudelaire, in Les Fleurs du Mal (“A noise of the street, again with the s: “La rue assourdissante autour de moi hurlait.” The onset of Oreste’s madness in Racine’s Andromaque (Act 5, scene 5) is evoked thus: “Pour qui sont ces serpents qui sifflent sur vos tˆetes ?” – a quotation known by any well-tutored French-speaking pupil. The notion of alliteration explains the very common combination of verb ` l’aise, Blaise !; or noun + first name, with one other personal example: A Allons-y, Alonzo !; Relax(e), Max !; Tu parles, Charles !; Courage, Gustave !; C ¸a glisse, Alice/Ulysse !; D’accord, Hector !; Fais gaffe, Olaf !; Cool, Raoul !; Pas de panique, Monique !; Tu d´econnes, Ron !; Aboule, Abdul !; and the most common left till the end: C ¸a colle, Anatole ! 2.11.2 Place names At a national level in France, there is usually agreement over the pronunciation of place names. However, one comes across, and quite frequently, alternative regional pronunciations, and even incoh´erences within a region. The following list groups together place names, and some proper names,
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the pronunciation of which is not always appreciated by non-native speakers of French: Argos, Chios, Knossos, Lesbos, Paphos (many Greek names, particularly islands, end thus, and here the final s is pronounced). Generally speaking, if the final s of a foreign place name is pronounced in the foreign language, then the French follows suit: Caracas, Indianapolis, Memphis, Phoenix, Texas, X´er`es (Jerez in Spain). Ancenis (in western France the s is pronounced). Anglet (in southwestern France here the t is pronounced). Auch (in southwestern France here the ch is pronounced as sh in shoot). Le Wast (village in northeastern France; here the pronunciation for those outside the area would be Le Vast where both the s and the t are pronounced, but for those living in the region it is pronounced Le Wa, clearly subject to Flemish influence). Bourg-en-Bresse (in eastern France; most French speakers, if not all, pronounce the g as a k). Millau (in central southern France; the double l is pronounced as y as in boy). Vallet and Le Pallet provide two fascinating cases. In western France, these two towns are within ten miles of each other. However, within the area, the t of Vallet is pronounced but the t of Le Pallet is not. This is what a French speaker would call an incoh´erence. Elsewhere, it is most probable that French speakers would not pronounce the t in either case. The t of Cholet in the same area is not pronounced.6 Saint-Mars-la-Jaille (in Brittany), unlike the planet Mars or the esplanade near the Eiffel Tower (Champ de Mars), where the s is sounded, keeps a silent s. The s of Lons in Lons-le-Saunier is pronounced. Montpellier (in the south of France) has two pronunciations, one with a mute e and the other with an open e, although the latter is less common. Metz in eastern France is pronounced as mess. The a of Saˆ one (in Saˆ one-et-Loire, for example) is not pronounced. The o of Laon is not pronounced. The s of Lens is pronounced. Bruxelles and Auxerre provide endless discussion. The x of these two towns is heard as both x and ss. The second pronunciation is often considered more elegant or joli. 6
Modern technology is provoking disturbances in the area of pronunciation. For instance, the French GPS (English Satnav = Satellite Navigation) provides Vallet with no t pronounced. This change in pronunciation must occur everywhere.
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As far as Bruxelles is concerned, the ss sound is often heard in Belgium since this is also the Flemish sound and Brussel is the Flemish equivalent. The u of Ulm as in la Rue d’Ulm is pronounced as in the u of rue. Ulm is a place in southern Germany, scene of one of Napoleon’s victories. This Parisian street is well known since it houses the center for the ´ducation nationale. E The three letters s, x and z in final position are sounded more the further one goes toward southern France. Chamonix and the village Saint-Jorioz (both in the Alps) illustrate this feature, although this is less true now than in former times. The x of Chamonix used to be sounded in the Alpine area, and the same applies to the z of SaintJorioz, but this is increasingly less so. The z of Saint-Tropez in the Mediterranean area would not usually be pronounced. Away from the Alps, and moving toward the ˆIle de France and western France, and following a traditional imaginary line from Grenoble to Bordeaux, these three consonants are often dropped in pronunciation. The s of the small town Cassis on the French Mediterranean is pronounced or not in southern France, according to authorities in the city/town hall, and this takes us back to the drink cassis (see p. 35, subsection on unpronounced/pronounced words ending in s). Finally, a schoolchild from northern France submitted to the rigors of a French dict´ee would encounter serious difficulties if the reader of the dict´ee were from Marseilles, for instance.
2.11.3 Proper names (see also Chapter 65 on proper names) Albert Camus (unpronounced s), Goth (Germanic tribe; th not pronounced), Mahomet (t is silent), Marat (t is silent), Cl´ement Marot (t is silent), Franc¸ois Mauriac (c is pronounced as with numerous towns in the Bordeaux area where he was born: Aurillac, Bergerac, Cognac, Rib´erac, Jarnac, etc.), Pˆ aris (the Greek mythical figure; here the s is pronounced, unlike the capital of France, Paris), Robespierre (here the s is pronounced and the first e is open, as in mer), Georges Sand (here the d is pronounced), Christ (st pronounced), but in J´esus-Christ the st is not pronounced. The s of V´enus is pronounced. 2.11.4 Spelling traps There are cases where cognate words in English and French appear identical in form. On the other hand, there are cases where slight differences exist between the two languages, for example French juridiction > English jurisdiction, French remontrance > English remonstrance. These variations often concern single/double consonants, the presence of the final e in French but not in English, or a difference of vowels. The divergences are
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often slight, but they do exist. The following selection presents some of these divergences: abr´eviation s’acclimater archiduc adresse bagage calme caract`ere carotte
abbreviation to acclimatize archduke address baggage calm character carrot
c´eleste circulaire condescendance condol´eances courrier cocon d´elinquant d´eveloppement dromadaire entreprise enveloppe environnement exemple extase girafe groupe (im)personnel (in)d´ependant/ce liqueur liquide novateur
celestial, heavenly circular condescension condolences courier cocoon delinquent development dromedary enterprise envelope environment example ecstasy giraffe group (im)personal (in)dependent/ce liquor liquid innovative
infatigable offensant inoffensif litt´eral loterie litt´erature litt´eraire livide (deathly pale)
indefatigable offensive (adj.) inoffensive literal lottery literature literary livid
juridiction provocant mouvement (ir)responsable rafraˆıchir recommander ressources sym´etrie ressusciter rime rythme seconde sentinelle solliciter sollicitude sycomore tarif transfert ustensile v´eg´etarisme
jurisdiction provocative movement (ir)responsible refresh recommend resources symmetry resuscitate rhyme rhythm second (of time) sentinel solicit solicitude sycamore tariff transfer utensil vegetarianism
For American speakers note: omelette = omlet.
2.12 Words common to French and English Two of the main sources of the English language are Latin and Greek, notably through the medium of one or other of the Romance languages. French also derives to a large extent from these two languages. It therefore comes as no surprise that a large number of words in English and French are very similar in form and meaning, and in some cases their form, if not their meaning, is exactly the same.
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The differences in the words listed below have a certain regularity, the understanding of which will provide considerable assistance to the student of French. 2.12.1 Nouns The following list provides the principal terminations common to both languages, embracing a very large number of words. F M/F
–ade –age
no change no change
M M M M M M M M M M M F F F M M
–al –alt –ant –arian –ator –ce –cle –ent –ge –gen –graph –ic –ine –ion –isk –ism
no change adds no change becomes becomes no change no change no change no change becomes becomes becomes no change no change becomes adds
M/F
–ist
adds
M
–ite
no change
M
–ment
no change
M
–meter
becomes
–m`etre
F F M
–mony –nce –oid
becomes no change adds
–monie e
M
–or
becomes
–eur
M
–ose
no change
e –aire –ateur
–g`ene –graphe –ique
–isque e e
brigade, salade ´equipage, personnage, cage, page, rage canal, m´etal asphalte, basalte but cobalt ´el´ephant, instant centenaire, unitaire orateur, r´egulateur commerce, palace, pr´ecipice article, cercle, obstacle accident, agent, r´egent privil`ege, vestige oxyg`ene autographe, photographe logique, musique, rh´etorique discipline, doctrine, mine confusion, infusion, religion ast´erisque, risque despotisme, romantisme, paganisme artiste, dentiste, fleuriste, pianiste granite, lignite, nitrite. But one does see and hear granit. The t is pronounced here. fragment, instrument, monument barom`etre, kilom`etre, tacom`etre c´er´emonie, parcimonie abondance, province, violence sph´ero¨ıde, st´ero¨ıde, but celluo¨ıd acteur, couleur, horreur, vapeur glucose
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A Reference Grammar of French
M M
–ot –phone
adds no change
e
M
–scope
no change
F M/F F F
–sis –ter/–tre –tion –tude
becomes becomes no change no change
–se –tre
F M/F
–ty –ule
becomes no change
–t´e
F
–ure
no change
M
–um
no change
F
–y
becomes
–ie
despote, patriote t´el´ephone, m´egaphone, xylophone cam´escope, microscope, t´el´escope crise, n´evrose, synth`ese, th`ese centre, lettre condition, nation, tentation d´ecr´epitude, multitude, platitude ´eternit´e, soci´et´e, moralit´e bidule, globule, module, mule, nodule cure, figure, (agri)culture, sin´ecure aluminium, g´eranium, mus´eum (of natural history) but mus´ee = museum anatomie, ´energie, g´eographie, oncologie, technologie, zoolog´ıe, t´el´ephonie
2.12.2 Adjectives Only the masculine forms of the adjectives are given. –acious –al –an –ant –ar –arious –ary –ble –ct –ense –ent –ferrous –ic/ical –id –ile –ine
becomes no change becomes no change becomes becomes becomes no change no change no change no change becomes becomes becomes no change becomes
–ite
becomes
–ace –ain –aire –aire –aire
–f`ere –ic/ique –ide –in –it
fugace, sagace, tenace moral, central, fatal am´ericain, humain abondant, dominant circulaire, solaire gr´egaire, pr´ecaire ordinaire, contraire noble, notable, soluble compact, contact, intact dense, immense ´evident, prudent, effervescent aurif`ere, carbonif`ere pacifique, public, satirique rapide, solide, valide docile, fertile, fragile aquilin, canin, f´elin, l´eonin, masculin ´erudit
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
–ive –lent –nal –ocious –ous –tial –und –ure 2.12.3 Verbs –ate –fy –ize/ise –e
becomes no change becomes becomes becomes no change becomes becomes
–if –urne –oce –eux –ond –ur
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actif, d´ecisif, passif turbulent, violent, virulent diurne, nocturne atroce, f´eroce, pr´ecoce glorieux, lumineux, monstrueux (im)partial moribond, rubicond futur, (im)pur
becomes –er calculer, ´evaluer, innover becomes –fier amplifier, fortifier, magnifier becomes –iser civiliser, organiser, r´ealiser A great number of verbs of this termination are inherited from the French: admirer, combiner, causer, continuer, determiner, imaginer, observer.
It should be borne in mind that not all the English terminations listed above can be automatically turned into French by the changes indicated; neither should it be assumed that all words with similar or identical spellings have the same meaning.
2.13 Spelling rectifications as prescribed by the Conseil sup´erieur de la langue franc¸aise in 1990 and approved by the Acad´emie franc¸aise It must be stated at the outset that many of what are called in French rectifications or preferably in English “modifications” do not seem to have any weight, and the former spellings can still apply with no sanctions whatsoever. Indeed, many very literate French people pay no attention to them. One wonders why the following rectifications were even suggested: 1. Circumflex accents may be omitted: apparaitre (apparaˆıtre), couter (coˆ uter). In some cases of possible confusion retention is recommended: mˆ ur, sˆ ur, although where the confusion lies is open to serious conjecture. See Chapter 3 on written accents. 2. The tr´ema may change its place so that it carries out its diacritic function more clearly: ambigu¨ıt´e > ambig¨ uit´e, aigu¨e > aig¨ ue, contigu¨e > contig¨ ue. Otherwise, aigu¨e for instance could be pronounced aig. Yet even here, the pronunciation aig is inconceivable for a French speaker. See Chapter 3 on written accents. The MULTI dictionnaire of de Villers (2003) retains the old spelling, so we are no further forward here. 3. The plural of compound nouns causes a stir as well with verb + noun. The suggestion is that a plural s should be added: des garde-chasses, des essuie-mains. See the section on the plural of compound nouns in Chapter 10.
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4. The past participle laiss´e followed by an infinitive remains invariable: les arbres qu’elle a laiss´e pousser. The same goes for faire: les chœurs que le chef d’orchestre a fait chanter. 5. The plural of foreign words should correspond to French practice: des lieds (songs) and not des lieder; des matchs and not des matches; also: des flashs/sandwichs/sketchs. 6. It is suggested that all´egrement should be entirely replaced by all`egrement, which has always existed alongside all´egrement. There is considerable uncertainty over ´ev´enement/´ev`enement. Spelling seems to provide a source of torment to the guardians of the French language. It assumes obsessive proportions, witness the passions attracted by the famous dictation of M´erim´ee, and the spelling championships that take place, even in Belgium. Bernard Pivot has carried these championships throughout the whole of the francophone world. What is certain is that, notwithstanding the innumerable pitfalls lying in wait for the unsuspecting foreigner, or the uninformed native speaker, the English language does not provoke the same furore, and the English accept with equanimity the American modifications to, for instance, colour / color, centre / center, encyclopaedia / encyclopedia and the multifarious other changes. O that French and English spelling were as simple as that of Spanish!
2.14 Dictations French dictations are generally taken more seriously in France than English dictations are in England, or in other English-speaking countries. They are part of the curriculum up to the age of fifteen/sixteen (troisi`eme), whereas in the English-speaking world they seem to attract no national requirement at all, notwithstanding the flagrant incoherence of all English pronunciation, witness bough, plough, through, though, thorough, trough, and Susy and busy. Some of the features of a French dictation are described below. The passage is read at normal speed in order to acquaint the pupil/student with the content. It is then read a second time, very slowly, with indications ` la ligne of punctuation: point, virgule, point virgule, deux points, guillemets, a (new paragraph), etc. Capital letters are not given, any more than accents are. You have to work out the acute, grave, circumflex, cedilla and tr´ema accents according to the precision of the sound. Small children in northern France could have problems if receiving a dictation from someone from the south. The passage is read a third time, and a further period of time is allowed for corrections. Below are two passages, written by one of the authors, that may be used as dictations. Note that, in the first passage, a maˆıtresse d’´ecole or institutrice is now called a professeure des ´ecoles. Note also the considerable use of capital letters, the unsounded correspondence of plural verbs with
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65
plural subject nouns, the plural s when often not sounded, except with liaison, an extra, unsounded e for the feminine, hyphens, the conversion of d into a t with grand oncle, and double n when one n is used in English: personnalit´e. Dictation 1 This dictation narrates the experience of a very young child living her first years at Viviers-sur-Rhˆ one, in southern France. The first paragraph contains numerous references to ecclesiastical buildings that delighted the young children at the time. The second and third paragraphs recount the initial steps on the educational ladder, as well as the most affectionate and intimate feelings generated by a happy family atmosphere, while the attractions of food formed no small part in this enjoyment. Note the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.
9. 10. 11. 12.
Maˆıtresses and ´ecoles have unsounded final s’s. Ravies agrees with maˆıtresses, although the es is not heard. Note that ´etaient is plural. The C of Cath´edrale is a capital letter and this word ends with an unsounded e. Autres has an unsounded s since it is plural and agrees with monuments. Particuliers has an unsounded s and agrees with hˆotels. ´ Eveillent is a plural verb form, although it could also be singular here: ´eveille. Saisissants has an unsounded s, agreeing with contrastes which has an e. Inscrite has a sounded t, agreeing with the preceding direct object: m’ = me (feminine). Avaient is plural, like connaissaient and cohabitaient in the last paragraph. Note the feminine agreements of the adjectives: maternelle, aˆın´ee, donn´ee, rec¸ue, la¨ıque, m´enag`eres, sorties, where the ending final e is not sounded. Notice the dieresis (tr´ema): la¨ıque. The ending e causes the consonants in grande, petite and exquises to be sounded but the second s of this last adjective is not heard. Note the cedilla under the c of fac¸onn´e. Note the hyphen in grand-p`ere. Accents, acute and grave, occur frequently. The circumflex accent appears a number of times too. Terre de lumi`eres et de contrastes Les maˆıtresses d’´ecoles ´etaient ravies de nous raconter l’histoire de Viviers-sur-Rhˆ one dans l’Ard`eche m´eridionale. Ce village m´edi´eval, situ´e sur un rocher au bord du Rhˆ one, affiche de nombreux symboles religieux : la Tour Saint Michel, la Cath´edrale Saint Vincent, ´glise Saint Laurent, le Palais E ´piscopal ou l’Ancien E ´vˆech´e, le Grand l’E S´eminaire, le Couvent de Saint Roch et bien d’autres monuments et
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hˆ otels particuliers qui constituent une v´eritable richesse dans la r´egion Rhˆ one-Alpes. Chaque coin et recoin du village ´eveillent en moi de merveilleux souvenirs grav´es dans ma m´emoire. En puisant dans mes souvenirs d’enfance, la d´ecouverte de contrastes saisissants surgit dans mon ` la fin des ann´ees cinquante, mes parents m’avaient inscrite esprit. A ` l’´epoque, ma sœur aˆın´ee avait trois ans et demi, ` l’´ecole maternelle. A a et moi j’avais un an de moins. L’´education donn´ee par mes parents et ` l’´ecole la¨ıque ont fac¸onn´e, a ` jamais, le caract`ere et l’instruction rec¸ue a la personnalit´e de leurs enfants. Les Vivaroises et Vivarois se connaissaient tous et cohabitaient comme une grande famille. Papa travaillait tˆ ot le matin, maman s’occupait de ` la ma petite sœur, la derni`ere n´ee, ainsi que des tˆ aches m´enag`eres a maison. Chaque matin, mon grand-oncle paternel, que nous appelions « grand-p `ere », jouait le rˆ ole d’accompagnateur. Nous passions d’abord ` la boulangerie pour acheter des brioches chaudes, sorties du four. Les a ` la odeurs exquises du pain et des pˆ atisseries nous donnaient l’eau a bouche.
Dictation 2 This second dictation describes a simple form of orienteering in southern France which covers a five-kilometer circuit, designed for small children. Notice particularly the use of the preterit or past historic, the imperfect subjunctive which would certainly test young French children since it is rarely used in spoken language, except for humorous or pedantic purposes, numerous unsounded s’s, as well as the sounded s largely through liaison, agreement of adjectives with feminine nouns or nouns in the plural, an aspirate h. The th in cath´edrale is pronounced as a t. Accents occur with frequency, with a fair scattering of circumflexes. Plein and pleine are pronounced the same way in en plein air and en pleine saison/campagne. Le jeu de piste Sur le rocher de Chˆ ateauvieux, nous fˆ umes en position de surplomber l’all´ee du Rhˆ one jonch´ee, de part et d’autre, de platanes. Nous admirions avec extase les amandiers, les abricotiers, les pˆechers, les cerisiers en floraison. Au fil de l’eau, des p´eniches travers`erent le Rhˆ one, ce grand fleuve d’Europe. En pleine saison, nous savourions la nature et la richesse agricole de la vie rurale. Quel bonheur de se retrouver sur les hauteurs de la cit´e ´episcopale et d’admirer la vue panoramique qui ` nos yeux d’enfants ! s’offrit a Le garde-champˆetre nous pr´evint du danger pour que nous fussions prudents. Le jeudi apr`es-midi fut r´eserv´e aux activit´es ludiques du ` l’heure patronage. Les religieuses d´esiraient que nous arrivassions a pile. Elles avaient agi de la sorte pour que nous eussions le temps
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d’examiner notre programme r´ecr´eatif. Il fallait pour cela qu’elles fussent dynamiques et qu’elles aimassent animer et organiser des activit´es en plein air. D`es que les hirondelles annonc¸aient le printemps, les sœurs de Saint Roch proposaient notre jeu favori. Le but du jeu fut de tracer un circuit p´edestre, en pleine campagne, au milieu des fermes, des animaux et des arbres fruitiers. Cette activit´e nous donna l’occasion de travailler en ´equipe, de d´ecoder des messages, de d´ecouvrir la nature. Le jeu dura tout l’apr`es-midi sur un parcours de cinq kilom`etres environ. Nous eˆ umes l’habitude de partir de la cath´edrale, en parcourant les ruelles pav´ees du village m´edi´eval, en chantant des comptines [counting/nursery rhymes], sous les applaudissements des riverains.
2.15 The language of texting (le texto = the text ; not to be copied in formal writing) Following the telegram which, submitted to its own constraints, created its own lapidary style, SMS (Short Message Service) or texting has also developed its characteristic language, in French as in English. SMS is also used in French. For generational reasons, the SMS is the preferred method of communication for young people between the ages of 15 and 25. It is discrete and cheap, while its coded messages can remain indecipherable to the uninitiated, therefore to most parents. There is nothing easier to establish a sense of community and belonging than inventing a kind of dialect known only to the members of that community. There exists also a further reason behind the popularity of texting, clearly less “social,” and in the lower echelons of literary expression: to be able to send a message from a mobile phone where each key corresponds to several letters enables the user to gain time, and to avoid keying in unnecessary information. In order to communicate speedily, words are reduced to their simplest written expression, so that qu becomes k. C’est quoi is transformed into c´ekoi or even ckwa, and so on. Abbreviations, puzzles or acronyms of all kinds are obviously welcome: ` faire or, in vulgar mode, rien a ` foutre, Ri129 = stp = s’il te plaˆıt, raf = rien a rien de neuf, MDR = mort de rire. Certain expressions are even more cryptic: k´ezako = Qu’est-ce que c’est ? The only prevailing rule in texting is precisely the absence of rules. Traditional spelling is cast to the wind, while kicking over orthographic traces is a virtue in itself. For many users, the essential is that phonetic transcription be correct and familiar or intimate: savapa (C ¸a va pas), kestuf´e (Qu’est que tu fais ?). This new language allows the creation of a happier, livelier and more jolly sense of being: ta ht du p1 is more acceptable than T’as achet´e du pain ?
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Je t’aiiiiiiiiiiiiiime strikes a tone of greater originality and even passion than Je t’aime. There follows a simple text dictionary of terms with their full French equivalent. The full French equivalents include upper case, and other forms of orthographic signs, which highlight the differences between texting and traditonal writing. There follow five examples of texting, which even includes, not surprisingly, some use of English.
SMS vocabulary a12c4 a2m1 a+ a b1to apelr´e asap asv ay´e bi1 B1sur bi1to Biz Bap bcp bjr bsr C C 2 labal Cad C b1 C cho C mal1 C pa 5pa C 2L8 Dak D 100 Dsl f´e G1id2kdo G la N GPT l´e plon Gre GspR b1
` un de ces quatre A ` demain A ` plus tard A ` bientˆ A ot ! Appellerai au plus vite (as soon as possible) ˆge, sexe, ville (ex : 33, H, Paris) a C ¸ a y est ! Bien Bien sˆ ur ! Bientˆ ot Bises Bon apr`es-midi Beaucoup Bonjour ! Bonsoir ! C’est C’est de la balle ! C’est-` a-dire ? C’est bien ! C’est chaud ! C’est malin ! C’est pas sympa ! C’est trop tard (c’est too late) D’accord ! Descends ! D´esol´e Fait J’ai une id´ee de cadeau J’ai la haine ! J’ai p´et´e les plombs Grenoble J’esp`ere bien
Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation
Gt GT o 6n´e J Jariver´e je le sa V jen´emar je t’M jspr k keske C kestudi kestu X kestuf´e, kef´etu koi29 MDR M´e nvo num oci pl´esir port pr PTDR Raf ras rdv r´ep r1 savapa slt stp tabitou tata KS tel ti2 tjs t ko q tkc t le + bo t oqp t nrv tr´e V
J’´etais J’´etais au cin´e Je J’arriverai Je le savais ! J’en ai marre ! Je t’aime ! j’esp`ere que Qu’est-ce que c’est ? Qu’est-ce que tu dis ? Qu’est-ce que tu crois ? Qu’est-ce que tu fais ? Que fais-tu ? Quoi de neuf ? mort de rire mais nouveau num´ero aussi plaisir portable pour p´et´e de rire ` faire rien a ` signaler rien a rendez-vous r´epondu rien C ¸ a va pas ? Salut ! s’il te plaˆıt ! T’habites o` u? Tu as ta caisse (voiture) ? t´el´ephone T’es hideux toujours T’es cocu ! T’es cass´e (T’es fatigu´e) T’es le plus beau T’es occup´e ? T’es ´enerv´e ? Tr`es Vais
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V1 Vazi Ver VrMan 2
Viens ! Vas-y ! Vers Vraiment ! De
SMS 1 bjr Tata. C assia. il sagit du nvo num de tel port de Zinou. J V tenvoyer les 4 sms. celui ci en ´e 1 bon ex oci. A t bi1 to. Grosses Biz. Assia. ☺ Transcription: Bonjour Tata, c’est Assia. Il s’agit du nouveau num´ero de telephone portable de Zinou. Je vais t’envoyer les quatre SMS. Celui-ci en est un bon exemple aussi. A bientˆ ot ! Grosses bises ! Assia. ☺ This happy face allows the expression of the joy felt by the person writing the text. There exist of course all sorts of icons which point to anger, satisfaction, fear, sadness and so on. SMS 2 Slt ca va ? Oui C tjs mon num mai gt pa a gre e jave pa mon port C pr ca. jspr k t va bi1. Gros bisous Transcription: Salut ! C ¸ a va ? Oui c’est toujours mon num´ero mais je ` Grenoble et je n’avais pas mon portable, c’est pour ¸ca. n’´etais pas a J’esp`ere que tu vas bien. Gros bisous. SMS 3 Merci pr ton sms. dsl 2 pa avoir rep avan. ca ma fe tre plesir oci 2 te revoir. A bi1 to. Biz. Transcription: Merci pour ton SMS. D´esol´ee de ne pas avoir r´epondu avant. C ¸ a m’a fait tr`es plaisir aussi de te revoir. A bientˆ ot ! Bises. SMS 4 Ok ca marche. J fini a 12h15. J vs apelre a ce momen la. Biz a tt a lheure ! ` 12h 15. Je vous appellerai a ` ce Transcription: Ok ¸ca marche. Je finis a ` tout a ` l’heure. moment-l` a. Bises, a SMS 5 J sui reparti. J pense k jarivere a la gare ver 18h15. ` la gare vers Transcription: Je suis repartie. Je pense que j’arriverai a 18h 15.
3 Written accents / Les accents ´ecrits1
The passage below evokes the concept of enriching international exchanges between France and Australia, and, in this specific case, the University of Adelaide, which has a great number of attractive features to offer a student of French nationality or a professor on an exchange visit. The passage describes the delightful environment surrounding the students on the university campus. As with any French text, all the different accents are inevitably encountered, from the acute to the grave and the circumflex, to the dieresis and the hyphen. As noted in the analysis following the passage, accents also appear now on upper case letters. Une jeunesse studieuse en Australie m´ eridionale Le gouvernement australien s’est fix´e comme objectifs de soutenir, aupr`es des universit´es, les programmes de mobilit´ e ´etudiante dans le ` participer a ` ces projets, but d’inciter un grand nombre de jeunes a ` venir en Australie pour prod’encourager les universit´es ´etrang`eres a mouvoir leurs propres institutions comme destinations potentielles. Quel bonheur d’avoir pu saisir cette opportunit´ e dans le cadre du Australian Exchange Fair Circuit ! Comme bon nombre de coll`egues d’universit´ es ´etrang` eres, j’ai par` cette manifestation importante en rendant visite aux univerticip´e a sit´es australiennes, en d´ecouvrant leur environnement de travail, en prenant contact avec leurs ´etudiants, leur personnel enseignant et administratif, en faisant la promotion de l’offre de formation de mon ´etablissement et des nombreux services offerts aux ´ etudiants ´etrangers ` s’installer et a ` s’int´egrer plus facilement en France. afin de les aider a Le campus verdoyant de l’universit´e d’Adela¨ıde est situ´ ` proximit´ ea e du centre-ville. Il est tr`es arbor´e [It is a very wooded area] et compte de magnifiques fac¸ades, de belles cours int´erieures, d’anciens cloˆıtres [cloisters] en brique rouge et des bˆ atiments en pierre ocre. Des constructions mod` l’architecture ancienne. Les ´etudiants organisent ernes se combinent a 1
For an exhaustive study of this topic, see Louis Gu´ery’s Dictionnaire des r`egles typographiques (2005) referred to in the bibliography.
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` un r´ leurs rencontres en milieu associatif grˆ ace a eseau dynamique de clubs sportifs, d’organisations syndicales et de nombreuses activit´ es sociales. Les saisons sont invers´ees par rapport aux nˆ otres. Fin mars d´ ebut avril, nous avons assist´e aux vendanges [grape harvest] et pris un repas dans un cadre bucolique de la c´el`ebre vall´ ee de Barossa, r´egion viticole que nous avons travers´ee avec des temp´eratures exceptionnelles qui se ` Adela¨ıde en situaient entre 30 et 40 degr´es Celsius. La qualit´ e de la vie a ` une ouverture internationale. fait une ville universitaire active et prˆete a ˆge a `´ Les garc¸ons et les filles passent une partie de leur bel a etudier et ` s’´epanouir dans un milieu enrichissant et stimulant. Les ´ a echanges extra-europ´eens ont un bel avenir en perspective.
Written accents, sometimes known as orthographical signs, are signs written over or under letters (e.g., ¸c) which indicate the pronunciation of these letters or help differentiate between words that are written in the same way. Initially, it may be more helpful to refer to these signs as “orthographic” since the word “accent” is ambiguous. The term “accent” may point to the characteristic mode of pronunciation of a person or group, especially one that discloses social or geographical origin (compare the Parisian and Marseilles accents). “Accent” may also relate to the tonic accent, or forceful utterance associated with the particular syllable of a word, and is a strong feature of English, Spanish and Italian, whereas in French any stress falls on the last syllable of a word and is usually very slight. Our concern here is exclusively the consideration of marks that highlight often subtle differences in the pronunciation of individual letters, particularly vowels. The signs treated in this chapter are also referred to in Chapter 2 on alphabet. There are five orthographical signs in French. These are: acute accent or accent aigu (´e), grave accent or accent grave (`e), circumflex accent or accent circonflexe (ˆ a/ˆe/ˆı), dieresis or tr´ema (¨e/¨ı/¨ u) and cedilla or c´edille (c¸). (The term di´er`ese exists in French but this refers to the breaking up of a diphthong and thus creating a hiatus: trouer, fluet, oublier). For simplicity’s sake, the term “accent” is used from now on. Formerly, accents were not written over upper-case letters but this practice has changed, and all letters, upper and lower case, take an accent where necessary.
3.1 The acute accent The acute accent is placed exclusively over the letter e as in: c´edille, ´ecole, regard´e, s´erie, sup´erieur. J´er´emie est d´esesp´er´e car il a perdu sa pr´ecieuse cl´e. It is a clear, sharp, closed sound and is in no way diphthongized as the e can be in English. It sounds like the i in English it.
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The vowel e which produces the sound ´ e does not always bear an accent. There is no written acute accent if the letter e is followed by a double consonant or an x: dessin, effacer, effort, erreur, essence, exercice. There is no written accent on the e of the final syllable when it ends in -d, -f, -r, -z: le pied, la clef, le boulanger, chanter, premier, le nez. Interestingly enough, la clef is also written la cl´e and, logically, this produces the same sound. There is no accent on the definite and indefinite articles (les, des) or on the possessive adjectives (mes, tes, ses). The inversion of the first-person singular of certain verbs, which is high R3 register, produces an e acute: aim´e-je, puiss´e-je. The Conseil sup´erieur de la langue franc¸aise recommends aim`e-je and puiss`e-je but the use of this grave accent is not shared by everyone. The difference in sound here between ´e and ` e is almost imperceptible and need not be a source of worry. ´DUSE (jelly fish). The acute accent is also used with capitals: ME
3.2 The grave accent The grave accent is placed over the letters e, a and u. When it is placed over the letter e, it is pronounced as an open e, as with the ai in the English pair. The grave accent is used when a consonant is followed by a mute e in `ME. The a certain number of words: le p`ere, la m`ere, l’´el`eve, le pi`ege, DEUXIE third example, ´el`eve, illustrates perfectly the closed and open sounds of the e. One further example: Cet athl`ete poss`ede une bonne hygi`ene de vie. The open sound of e also occurs in a certain number of verbs in the first group: Je l`eve la main pour prendre la parole contrasted with Nous levons; Sophie ach`ete des fruits contrasted with Nous achetons. The grave accent on the e is also placed over the feminine nouns and adjectives which end in –er and –ier: le boulanger > la boulang`ere, l’infirmier > l’infirmi`ere, l´eger > l´eg`ere, premier > premi`ere. It also occurs on a certain number of words ending in –s: apr`es, d`es, exc`es, proc`es, tr`es. The grave e used in such terms as m´edi`eviste, seizi`emiste, dix-septi`emiste and vingti`emiste (these terms relate to scholars of the appropriate period) should, according to the Le petit Robert, be an acute e instead: m´edi´eviste, seizi´emiste and so on. This confusion between ´ e and ` e when they occur in unstressed positions is very common. Below are examples of words where uncertainty persists. Le petit Robert suggests abr´egement but Grevisse recommends abr`egement. Similarly, Le petit Robert suggests aff´eterie but Grevisse recommends aff`eterie. The following is a list where clarity is confounded. Le petit Robert precedes Grevisse: all´egement/all`egement, ass´echement/ass`echement, c´eleri/c`eleri, cr´emerie/cr`emerie, cr´enelage/cr`enelage, d´er`eglementation in both cases, empi´etement/empi`etement, ´ev´enement/´ev`enement, ´ev´enementiel/´ev`enementiel (Grevisse accepts both of these, while only av`enement exists), s´echeresse/s`echeresse, s´echerie/s`echerie.
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No divergences occur with the prefixes d´e and pr´e (d´emesur´e, pr´elever), or with initial ´ e (´echelon, ´echeveau, ´edredon, ´elever, ´emeraude, ´epeler, ´eperon) and their cognate words (´echelonner, e´levage, ´eperonner). Care needs to be taken over certain verbs in the different persons of their conjugation or corresponding nouns: le si`ege / si´eger / je si`ege; c´eder / je c`ede. When the grave accent is placed over the letter a, there is no phonetic difference from the a without it. Compare la table to l` a (adverb of place = ` (preposition) l’´ecole. here, there). Compare also elle a (verb from avoir) and a `, voila `, au-dela `. ` occurs in a few other words: d´eja Furthermore, a ` , it When the grave accent is placed over the letter u in the word ou > ou allows us to differentiate the relative pronoun and the interrogative adverb from the conjunction ou. There is no phonetic difference. Compare Voici la maison o` u (pronoun) j’habite / O` u (adverb) allez-vous ? and Tu veux du th´e ou (conjunction) du caf´e ? It goes without saying that there can hardly be any confusion between ou and o` u. `VE. The grave accent is also used with capitals: Biblioth`eque SAINTE–GENEVIE
3.3 The circumflex accent The circumflex accent (often humorously called chapeau chinois) is placed over all five written vowels. It marks the disappearance of a letter in modern French, and usually this letter is an s. In these examples, Old French ˆne; hospital > ho ˆ pital; teste > tˆete; isle > precedes modern French: asne > a ˆıle; aage > a ˆge; croste > crou ˆ te. Compare these modern French words with some Spanish words (asno, hospital, isla, costra), some Italian words (asino, ospedale, testa, isola, crosta) and four English words (ass, hospital, island, crust). When the circumflex occurs over an o, it modifies the sound by making ˆ tre; votre amie / la vo ˆ tre. it more closed: notre ami / le no When the circumflex occurs over the a, it modifies the a by making ˆne, cra ˆne, the sound more open and pronounced higher in the mouth: a ˆner/fla ˆneur, ha ˆbleur, ma ˆnes as opposed to mal(heur), sale. fla When it is placed over an e, the sound is open: la fenˆetre, la tˆete, extrˆeme, mˆeme. Le joueur se jette tˆete baiss´ee dans la mˆel´ee. The circumflex accent points to certain other differences, although, as ˆ with ou and o` u, there is little room for confusion: du (partitive article) / du ˆ r (adjective); sur (preposition) / su ˆr (past participle of devoir); mur (noun) / mu (adjective). Dˆ u loses its circumflex when in the feminine or plural form: l’erreur due `... ` . . . / les disputes dues a a ˆME. The circumflex is also used with capitals: ME
3.4 The dieresis The dieresis (tr´ema) indicates that, when there are two contiguous vowels, they are pronounced separately: le ma¨ıs = a + i (maize) as opposed to mais
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(but), which is pronounced with an open e. Also: une h´ero¨ıne as opposed to the oine of pivoine (vwa), for instance. Similarly, in the nouns ambig¨ uit´e and Sina¨ı, u + i and a + i are pronounced separately. The same is true in Hano¨ı and Shangha¨ı. When the dieresis occurs over the u in the syllable g¨ ue, it entails the pronunciation of u. Compare une blague / une figue and aigu ¨ e/ambigu ¨ e (aigu¨e and ambigu¨e are the older feminine forms but still very frequently used). The u in blague and figue is not pronounced. ¨L. The dieresis is also used with capitals: Mme de STAE Here are some further words that use the tr´ema: ca¨ıd, cano¨e, dala¨ı-lama, Dosto¨ıevski, Ha¨ıti, Jama¨ıque, mao¨ıste, Tolsto¨ı.
3.5 The cedilla The term “cedilla” comes from the diminutive of the Spanish zeta/zeda (z), which disappeared from use in the eighteenth century. The cedilla appears like an upside-down c, and is placed beneath the consonant c when it is followed by an a, o or u. This indicates that the c is to be pronounced as an ss, and not like a k: le fran¸cais, nous commen¸cons, j’ai re¸cu. The cedilla is also used with capitals: FAC ¸ ADE NORD.
3.6 Foreign accents Some foreign accents are also observed, although they are not frequent. Geographical names such as Afgh¯ anist¯ an bear an accent. Czech names are ˇ apek (author of The Absolute at Large) and Haˇsek often spelled with a h´ aˇcek: C (of The Good Soldier ˇSvejk fame, a celebrated satire of World War I). The Spanish tilde (feminine in Spanish but masculine in French) is not uncommon, notably with words of Spanish origin: ca˜ non (also canyon), do˜ na (as in Do˜ na Sol in Victor Hugo’s play Hernani, set in the Basque Country). It should be added that, although foreigners see the tilde as the mark over the n (˜ n), its true Spanish meaning refers to all written accents over Spanish words. The above rules governing written accents apply to all writing. However, many unlettered French speakers, or people writing hastily, as in an e-mail or texting, often ignore them. This is a practice not to be copied in formal writing.
4 Punctuation, font, upper and lower case / La ponctuation, la police de caract`eres, les majuscules et minuscules The passage below illustrates some of the uses of French punctuation and upper and lower cases. Notice particularly how the use of capitals (with accents), small letters (adjectives, days, months and languages, and in titles after the first substantial word, but excluding names) and inverted commas differs from English practice, although there is uncertainty in French over upper or lower case with cardinal points. Notice also the use of italics for titles of books and films, as in English. The use of upper case for D´eesse de l’Amour (a form of personification) differs from the lower case of dieux and d´eesses since it is unique, just like Christians or Muslims refer to their God with a capital: Dieu, Allah. Chypre, joyau de la M´editerran´ee Cetteˆıle se situe entre l’Orient et l’Occident, un point o` u s’entrecroisent deux cultures. Les Grecs et les Turcs se partagent cette petiteˆıle pour des raisons g´eopolitiques. Cette partition se vit comme une d´echirure par le peuple insulaire, d’un cˆ ot´e les Chypriotes grecs, de l’autre les Chypriotes turcs. La pr´esence britannique sur l’ˆıle est caract´eris´ee par des bases militaires qui surplombent la « Grande bleue » [the Mediterranean Sea: a common colloquial term] qui se situe au carrefour de l’Europe, de l’Afrique et de l’Asie. ` Nicosie, Larnaca, Les p´erip´eties de notre voyage nous ont conduits a ` Paphos sur l’ˆıle de Chypre. Nous avons parcouru des Limassol puis a paysages sublimes. La ville de Paphos force l’admiration. Elle est dot´ee ` la Gr`ece antique. de nombreux sites arch´eologiques qui remontent a Cette ville est tr`es connue pour son temple d’Aphrodite. Des mosa¨ıques exposent l’effigie de la D´eesse de l’Amour et de la Beaut´e. La mythologie grecque demeure un ensemble de mythes obscurs en raison de leur complexit´e. Les monstres marins, les guerres intestines, les intrigues amoureuses, les h´eros mythiques, les dieux et les d´eesses gouvernent cet univers complexe. Un ouvrage en anglais intitul´e Paphos : Land of Aphrodite brosse un tableau int´eressant de ce pays l´egendaire.
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Chypre a su pr´eserver un environnement naturel et sauvage. L’ˆıle est s´epar´ee entre la communaut´e grecque et turque. Le grec et le turc sont les langues officielles. Les Chypriotes, appel´es ´egalement ` un plan de r´eunification de l’ˆıle. Le 1er mai 2004, Cypriotes, aspirent a la R´epublique (grecque) de Chypre est devenue membre de l’Union europ´eenne. Neuf autres pays ont emboˆıt´e le pas [followed suit] pour ´elargir l’Union europ´eenne en passant de quinze a ` vingt-cinq pays membres : Estonie, Hongrie, Lettonie [Latvia], Lituanie, Malte, Pologne, R´epublique tch`eque, Slovaquie, Slov´enie. La Bulgarie et la Roumanie ` vingt-sept membres la famille europ´eenne. A sont venues agrandir a l’heure actuelle, la proc´edure de r´eunification de l’ˆıle de Chypre sem` son adh´esion a ` ble prendre une tournure positive, en partie grˆ ace a l’Europe.
4.1 Punctuation Punctuation refers to the system of marks or points inserted in a text to clarify the meaning or signal a change in pitch or intonation, highlighting pauses or certain logical links. It is an essential element in avoiding what could be startling misunderstandings in written communication. Three examples, one in English and two in French, illustrate this possibility of hilarious misunderstanding. Lynne Truss’s Eats, Shoots and Leaves (instead of Eats Shoots and Leaves) points to this feature in a highly comical and attractive manner. In this book, she quotes: “Charles the First walked and talked half an hour after his head was cut off ” (2003, p. 13). Such a gruesome, yet comical, vision of Charles I makes more sense when punctuated in the following way: “Charles the First walked and talked. Half an hour after, his head was cut off.” A much more straightforward, less macabre, yet equally entertaining sentence occurs in the following two French statements, the first with no semi-colon and the second with one: “Les lapins sont sortis d`es qu’on [as soon as] avait ouvert la porte.” “Les lapins sont sortis; des cons [idiots] avaient ouvert la porte.” A third example where the comma ` San Francisco, non, a ` Denver,” makes all the difference: “Je l’ai rencontr´e a ` San Francisco, non a ` Denver.” Clearly, care as opposed to “Je l’ai rencontr´e a needs to be exercised over the niceties of correct punctuation. Some punctuation marks divide discourse according to a scale of grammatical relationships. French use of punctuation marks is very similar to that of English, although there are differences. The following punctuation marks are common currency in French: the period / full stop, colon, semicolon, inverted commas / quotation marks, suspension points / “dot dot dot” (usually three), parentheses/brackets, square brackets, interrogation point / question mark, exclamation point/mark, dash, hyphen, apostrophe, space, alin´ea (indentation and following paragraph), asterisk, forward or
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backward slash. Upper and lower case are also used to help the reader navigate the text. 4.1.1 The period / full stop (.) The period (le point final) indicates the completion of the largest punctuation unit, the sentence. It therefore appears at the end of the sentence and, in speech, indicates a pause where descending intonation occurs on the last word pronounced. For example: Je voudrais aller en Mauritanie en avril. Il faut acheter du pain. The following word is written with a capital. The period, logically, also marks the end of a paragraph. The period appears at the end of an abbreviation and can be used in acronyms: M. (Monsieur), ex-U.R.S.S. (now dismantled), C.I.A., S.S. (Nazi paramilitary force). However, if the abbreviation ends with the last letter of the abbreviated word, there is no period: Mme, Mlle. The period is not used to separate minutes and hours: 18h 40, 14h 30, 1h 15, 0 heure / 24 heures (minuit). When the period coincides with a closing of parenthesis or inverted commas, it follows them: C’´etait la premi`ere fois que St´ephanie me demandait de le faire (apr`es un silence de dix ans). Ils m’ont dit qu’il ´etait « impossible d’envoyer la lettre ». However, if a grammatically complete sentence is involved, the period precedes the closing parenthesis or inverted commas: Ils m’ont dit: « Il est impossible d’envoyer la lettre. » A period does not appear after a question or exclamation mark: Quand arrive-t-elle ? Qu’est-ce qu’elle est bˆete ! If the question or exclamation marks are surrounded by a parenthesis, a period is used: Ils ne se souvenaient pas de moi (et on s’´etait vus la veille !). A period is not, quite naturally, used after suspension/ellipsis points (see more on suspension points below). In numbers, a period is no longer recommended for numbers of a thousand or more. A space separates every set of three figures: 1 897 200 478 (see Chapter 62 on numbers). A period is not used for decimals (a comma is used instead). A period does sometimes appear, however, due to the influence of English. Some modern writers separate a single word with a period if they wish to insist on that word. This construction does not constitute a sentence: “On avait donn´e dans le Nord un grand coup de pied dans la fourmili`ere, et les fourmis s’en allaient. Laborieusement. Sans panique. Sans espoir. Sans d´esespoir” (Saint-Exup´ery 1953, p. 330); “Maintenant, je sais ce qu’est l’Empire. Une tenace, une constante violence. Diriger. D´eterminer. Contraindre. La vie est l` a . . .” (Malraux 1975, p. 155). This staccato style is most reminiscent of Hemingway. The period ( = dot) is used in French, as in English, as part of an email address: [emailprotected] which is read as “henricalet arrobase wanadoo point fr.”
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4.1.2 The colon (:) The colon (les deux points) indicates major divisions within a sentence. It points to a pause and is accompanied by descending intonation. But, in contrast to the period, it suggests that the statement is not complete. The uses of the colon are given below. The colon precedes an explanatory enumeration: Il existe diff´erentes ethnies en Am´erique du Nord: comanches, cheyennes, apaches, navajos, s´eminoles, et autres. It precedes textual words that are quoted: Le dicton dit: Il ne faut pas vendre la peau de l’ours avant de l’avoir tu´e (Don’t count your chickens). It is used in letters, dedications and speeches, and after the formulae Monsieur / Ch`ere coll`egue: J’ai le plaisir de vous annoncer que . . . It is used before a question or exclamation mark: La dame me demanda: Que faites-vous ici ? Les Alg´eriens s’exclam`erent: Le pr´esident Boum´edienne est mort ! ` savoir: Vous pouvez It is used after propositions such as par exemple, a le fabriquer avec bien des mat´eriaux. Par exemple: avec du bois, du m´etal, du plastique . . . ` savoir: l’inflation, le chˆomage, la violence Des difficult´es existent dans le pays. A urbaine, la baisse du pouvoir d’achat. The colon is used after verbs like affirmer, commenter, r´epondre, dire, ´ecrire: Ma m`ere affirma/commenta/r´epondit/dit/´ecrivit: Tu ne peux pas sortir ce soir. It is used after words, often in an official context, such as certifier, d´ecr´eter, constater: Je, soussign´e, certifie que: Monsieur Lejeune, agr´eg´e de physique . . . Le maire d´ecr´eta: Tous les jeunes de dix-huit ans doivent se pr´esenter pour s’inscrire sur les listes ´electorales. ` perLa police a constat´e les infractions suivantes: exc`es de vitesse, non-assistance a sonnes en danger, consommation excessive d’alcool, conduite en ´etat d’´ebri´et´e. It is used when an explanation is connected to something to be announced: Je finis cependant par regrouper les documents suivants: deux ` l’ordre de l’agent comptable. imprim´es, un manuscrit, trois lettres, un ch`eque libell´e a C’´etait un mari grincheux, rousp´eteur, jaloux: bref, un ˆetre insupportable. Patrice fut un homme attentionn´e, compr´ehensif: bref, un ˆetre exceptionnel. The reverse is also possible: Savoir garder le silence: ¸ca, c’est bien. The colon is used to exemplify something already said: Les raisons de sa mort sont claires: drogues, d´elinquance, violence. 4.1.3 The semi-colon (;) The semi-colon (le point-virgule) is used to express: a connection between two clauses that are not linked grammatically. Martin d´ecida de partir en voyage ; il avait toujours eu envie de visiter l’Asie. However, if one clause is short, often a comma will suffice: Audrey l’a fait ` contre-cœur. (here the main clause), mais a The semi-colon is used in juxtaposed clauses: L’homme positif fait toujours des progr`es; les hommes aux id´ees n´egatives n’atteignent jamais leur but.
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The semi-colon is used to separate enumerations of different eleˆtre, roman, po´esie, grammaire; porte, fenˆetre, mur; canari, moineau, ments: th´ea merle. The semi-colon may link grammatically complete sentences that are logically associated: “Un paysage pourra ˆetre beau, gracieux, sublime, insignifiant ou laid ; il ne sera jamais risible” (Bergson, Le rire, quoted in Grevisse and Goosse 2008, p. 136). Elle se coucha tˆot ; elle ´etait fatigu´ee. Sentences joined by a linking adverb are separated by a semi-colon, not by a comma: Poitiers n’est pas une grande ville; pourtant on s’y trouve bien. In these cases, the intonation does not descend in front of the semi-colon as it would before a period. 4.1.4 The comma (,) The comma (la virgule) marks off groups of word units that do not constitute complete sentences in themselves. Interestingly enough, the French virgule derives from the Latin virgula, as does the Italian virgola, as opposed to the English, the Spanish (coma) and the German (komma), which come from the Greek (komma). There is considerable carelessness over the omission of the comma. Its use can make all the difference in the world. Compare the two following sentences presenting casualties in World War I: Il y eut du cˆot´e franc¸ais seulement 310 000 morts et 300 000 bless´es; Il y eut, du cˆot´e franc¸ais seulement, 310 000 morts et 300 000 bless´es. The comma is used as a pause when a speaker addresses another person, calling her/him by name (vocative case): Valentin, viens ici. Papa t’a demand´e, S´ebastien, de ne pas sortir aujourd’hui (here both before and after S´ebastien). The comma separates analogous elements: verbes, sustantifs, adjectifs, pronoms, phrases, propositions subordonn´ees. However, if there is a linking word like et or ou, the comma is not used: Hier, aujourd’hui, demain et toujours. a-main, une robe ou un pull. Elle a achet´e des chaussures, un sac-` The comma is used when nouns are placed in apposition: Rome, ville ´eternelle, est la capitale de l’Italie. Mexico, ville azt`eque par excellence, est aujourd’hui une capitale cosmopolite. Annick, la cousine de Louis, vient d’arriver. The verb may disappear, and this produces an ellipsis: Marseille, ville ouverte ! Apr`es Chirac, Sarkozy. Apr`es Castro, Ra´ ul. Apr`es moi, le d´eluge ! The comma serves to isolate conjunctions: Tout le monde ´etait au courant, pourtant personne n’en parlait. ` pleuvoir, en cons´equence, on ne pouvait sortir. Il a continu´e a Enfin, on part demain. When the elements linked by mais are brief, a comma is not necessary: un sentiment ardent mais honorable; un int´erˆet bref mais intense.
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Or may or may not be followed by a comma: Elle ne sortait jamais. Or, ce dimanche-l` a, elle se d´ecida a ` aller a ` Paris. ` composer des po`emes. Jusque-l` a, elle avait publi´e seulement des romans; or elle se mit a The comma is often used when the normal order is inverted: Dans la cour, derri`ere la maison, il y a un grand vivier. The comma is used before contrasting conjunctions in short clauses: C’est une dame intelligente et tr`es belle, mais tr`es d´esagr´eable. The comma is often used after adverbial phrases: Au contraire, c’est un garc¸on tr`es sympa. Et pourtant, elle va venir. The comma is used after separate cities or towns from a larger entity: ´tats-Unis. Raleigh, ´etat de la Caroline du Nord, E The comma is used when the family name precedes the first name, as in administration: Lano¨e, Philippe; Picaud, Yves. The use or omission of a comma, as well as its placement, can affect meaning. Use Val´erie, mange une pomme. Vous ˆetes bien, sur France Musique. Ce professeur r´eput´e, s´ev`ere, a fini par craquer. L’avocat a d´ecouvert, dans ce dossier qu’on lui avait cach´e, de nouveaux ´el´ements. Antoine, viens avec nous. J’aperc¸ois Louis sur la vache, qui rit. Adrienne me l’a dit, une fois. C´eline est partie en Angleterre avec sa fille, Amandine.
Non-use or different use Val´erie mange une pomme. Vous ˆetes bien sur France Musique. Ce professeur r´eput´e s´ev`ere a fini par craquer. L’avocat a d´ecouvert dans ce dossier, qu’on lui avait cach´e de nouveaux ´el´ements. Antoine vient avec nous. J’aperc¸ois Louis sur la vache qui rit. Adrienne me l’a dit une fois. C´eline est partie en Angleterre avec sa fille Amandine.
4.1.5 Inverted commas/quotation marks (« ») Notice the difference between the English type of inverted commas (“ ”) and the French guillemets. Inverted commas encompass the words of a speaker: Le G´en´eral de Gaulle dit : « Quand je veux savoir ce que pense la France, je m’interroge. » They highlight a word, phrase, sentence: Elle a obtenu sa th`ese de doctorat avec « f´elicitations du jury et mention tr`es honorable » (with distinction / highest honors / summa cum laude). Inverted commas can enclose a proverb or saying: Selon le dicton : « Une hirondelle ne fait pas le printemps. » They are used to express irony: Quand on lui a dit qu’il ´etait le plus « intelligent », il s’est mis a` rire.
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They are used in nicknames, and often with humor: Je l’ai toujours appel´e « Monsieur le Grand », mˆeme quand il ´etait tout petit. They are used to highlight a proper name, institution, film, painting: Picasso a peint le tableau « Guernica ». (Italics are more usual here – see below.) ´, They are used to point to watchwords of institutions: « LIBERTE´, E´GALITE ´ FRATERNITE », devise de la R´epublique franc¸aise. They can be used with foreign words or phrases: On va faire du « shopping » cet apr`es-midi. They can indicate that a word or phrase belongs to colloquial language: a! C ¸a, c’est vraiment « sensas(s) »; Qu’est-ce qu’il est « con », celui-l` Inverted commas can be used to show that a title is an article that forms part of a book or journal: L’article sur « L’intelligence » m’a beaucoup plu. When direct speech is inserted within another quotation, the English type of quotations are often used for the words of direct speech, for clarity’s sake: « Comment peux-tu dire “Elle est bˆete” en sa pr´esence ? »; « Le p`ere a dit “C’est bien mon fils”. » 4.1.6 Suspension points ( . . . ) Suspension points (les points de suspension) are a group of (usually) three dots indicating that information, perhaps understood, is withheld, or that something is held in suspense: “Il tendit l’ordre de livraison des armes. Son texte ´etait long. Kyo le lisait : Oui, mais . . . (Malraux 1976a, p. 321) La porte s’ouvrit et. . . On entendit des pas pr´ecipit´es . . . Suspension points also express hesitation, doubt or thoughtfulness: Je crois que. . . , non, il vaut mieux . . . eh bien, on va voir. They express a sudden change in subject: Je voudrais te raconter ce qui s’est pass´e, mais. . . ¸ca ne vaut pas la peine. They have the value of etcetera in enumerations: D’innombrables touristes vont au Mexique: Am´ericains, Franc¸ais, Allemands . . . Question or exclamation marks come before suspension points: Entrez ! . . . ; Qu’est-ce que vous avez fait ? . . . When the word or sentence is incomplete, however, they come after: Je d´eteste ce conn (ard) . . . ! (term to be used with care). 4.1.7 Parentheses/brackets (( )) Parentheses or brackets (les parenth`eses) are used to enclose a phrase by way ` Dakar (S´en´egal). of clarification: Il naquit a ` ne pas assister a ` la r´eunion), ont protest´e contre Les voisins (ils ´etaient nombreux a les constants cambriolages. ` l’aquarelle), un peu rˆeveuse (elle se promenait Aude ´etait un peu artiste (elle peignait a ` la campagne), et mˆeme religieuse (elle allait a ` la messe tous les souvent seule a mois) . . . One says, as in English: ouvrir/fermer les parenth`eses. Parentheses also appear in plays to mark an aside (apart´e): Les spectateurs ont entendu en apart´e : (Mais, c’est la folie, ce qu’ils font)
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4.1.8 Square brackets ([ ]) Square brackets (les crochets) are similar to parentheses, but occur in special circumstances. They are used to encompass dates or clarifications within a text which is already in parentheses: La derni`ere ´edition du dictionnaire de l’Acad´emie franc¸aise (dictionnaire g´en´eral [2008]) recueille bien des n´eologismes. Square brackets are also used to encompass suspension points which indicate in the literally quoted text a word or sequence of words that are not reproduced, or to insert words that are conjectured: Les hirondelles [ . . . ] reviendront. La religion [ou toutes les vertus ch´etiennes] l’obs´edait. 4.1.9 The interrogation point / question mark (?) The interrogation point (le point d’interrogation) appears at the end of the sentence. It naturally occurs in questions: O` u est Papa ? Qu’est-ce que tu as fait ? ` quelle heure ? Qui est dans la cuisine ? Tu arrives a It is used when one wishes to indicate credulity, doubt, irony or surprise: Marie affirme qu’elle a quarante ans ? Tu dis qu’elle est intelligente ? No period is used with the question mark. 4.1.10 The exclamation point / mark (!) The exclamation point (point d’exclamation) appears at the end of the sentence. It expresses emotions such as admiration, fear, anger, pain, joy: Quel bonheur ! Quelle gentillesse ! Quelle horreur/plaie ! Que je suis contente ! Zut alors ! Pardi ! As with the question mark, no full stop is used with the exclamation point. 4.1.11 The dash (–) The dash (le tiret) indicates the beginning of a monologue/dialogue in a novel, for instance, without the need to point out who is speaking: – – – –
Tu lui as montr´e le livre ? Bien sˆ ur ! Mais c’´etait son cadeau ! Je ne savais pas.
4.1.12 The hyphen (-) The hyphen (le trait d’union) is shorter than the dash. The hyphen is used to ˆ-tre, d´eo-dorant, avia-teur. split words at the end of a sentence: th´ea The hyphen is also used to join up components of certain compound words: franco-espagnol, sino-am´ericain, anglo-saxon, moi/toi-mˆeme, presse-papier, pˆele-mˆele. The hyphen can be used to indicate a continuous series of numbers: Tu le trouveras dans les pages 25-31 du livre. The hyphen is used when a pronoun is attached to a verb: Dis-le-lui maintenant. Regarde-moi droit dans les yeux.
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4.1.13 The apostrophe (’) The apostrophe (l’apostrophe) marks an elision, showing the disappearance of a vowel preceding another vowel: Le mari but l’´epoux; Je la vois but Je l’ai vue; Si tu viens but S’il vient. No elision occurs, however, in si elle vient. Some elisions are not recorded in writing, yet do occur in speech: une autre explication, presque entier (see Chapter 2, Section 2.10 on elision). The apostrophe is also used before names starting with a vowel: Le v´elo d’Antoine; la maison d’Yves; la voiture d’Armelle; La peste d’Albert Camus; Po`emes d’Arthur Rimbaud. However, in the written language, one also sees: La peste de Albert Camus; Po`emes de Arthur Rimbaud. Some authors use the apostrophe to mark the disappearance of letters and invest the writing with a colloquial element. This does not necessarily happen before a vowel: J’vais partir; Elle crevait d’faim; mon p’tit gars; Je voulais ˆetr’ marin. An apostrophe is not used at the very end of a line: un d´efaut / d’attention and not un d´efaut d’ / attention. 4.1.14 The space The space (le blanc) separates words. There is no space before or after the apostrophe. One may, on the other hand, go to the following line after a hyphen. A space is observed before and after opening and closing inverted commas, after a period and a comma, and before and after a colon, a semicolon, and an interrogation or exclamation point. After suspension points, a space occurs: Laurent rentra. . . je ne l’entendis pas. A space separates series of three figures: 293 141 habitants; 9 453 621 dollars am´ericains. Figures related to years, zip/postal code, pages or paragraphs of a book ` la page do not follow this rule: en 1939; en (l’an) 2010; 44000 Nantes; renvoi a 1102. In e-mail addresses, as in English, there are no spaces: [emailprotected] 4.1.15 The alin´ea The alin´ea (which is masculine) points to both the passing from one paragraph to another and to the actual indentation itself. It suggests a marked pause, a real change in groups of ideas. It also indicates the different replies by people engaged in a dialogue: Il me d´eclara : – – – –
Mais t’es folle ! Qu’est-ce que tu veux ? Maman ne me l’a pas dit. Et pourtant. . .
The alin´ea is useful for enumerating a complex series of ideas or elements: ` la conf´erence: Seront admis a les proviseurs de lyc´ees, les professeurs agr´eg´es, les professeurs certifi´es,
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les ´el`eves de terminale, les parents d’´el`eves. Each line of verse follows the pattern of the alin´ea: ` la chandelle, Quand vous serez bien vieille, au soir, a Assise aupres du feu, devidant et filant, Direz, chantant mes vers, en vous esmerveillant, « Ronsard me celebroit du temps que j’estois belle. » [...] Vous serez au fouyer une vieille accroupie, Regrettant mon amour, et vostre fier desdain ` demain : Vivez, si m’en croyez, n’attendez a Cueillez d`es aujourd’hui les roses de la vie
Ronsard’s Sonnets pour H´el`ene, a call to the hedonism of carpe diem, illustrates not just the indentation of lines in poetry, but also the uncertainty of written accents up to the sixteenth century (and beyond). 4.1.16 The asterisk (∗) The asterisk (ast´erisque, which is masculine – not to be confused with the petit Gaulois, Ast´erix) replaces a proper name that one cannot, or does not ` la sœur Louise au couvent de ∗∗∗ ; le docteur ∗∗∗ qui me soigne; wish to, disclose: a Son amie, la comtesse ∗∗∗ . In philological or linguistic works, the asterisk indicates an unattested or foreign word, and here it appears before the word: Le mot orange d´erive de l’espagnol naranja et s’appelait peut-ˆetre ∗ norange au d´ebut de son arriv´ee en France. The asterisk, placed after a word, is frequently used to refer the reader by a renvoi to an explanation or further details at the bottom of the page or at the end of the chapter or book: Steinbeck s’inspira d’un r´ecit∗ indig`ene pour. . . Les ouvrages cit´es∗ par l’auteur nous invitent a ` penser que. . . The asterisk, or asterisks, can be used to mark a division in a text, or to separate stanzas in a poem. Several asterisks can be placed in a line or as a triangle. 4.1.17 The forward slash (/) The forward slash (la barre oblique) is used elliptically: Voil` a pour la diff´erence artisan/bourgeois; Quant aux contrastes paysan/citadin. . . However, this usage can become complicated and difficult to read if it is used more than once in the same sentence: une r´eflexion ´epist´emologique qui sera le garant d’un ` propos de/sur l’enseignement/apprentissage d’une langue. discours bien construit a The formula et/ou highlights the simultaneous possibilities of either/or, or one feature and another: Il y a des phrases pour la compr´ehension desquelles tout ` la situation est inutile. recours au contexte et/ou a The forward slash is also used in technical language: Sur l’autoroute la ` 130 k/h (= kilom`etres par heure); Notre imprimante a ` jet d’encre vitesse est limit´ee a donne un tirage de douze pages/minute; 24 images/seconde; 100 hab/km2 . The slash is used for Internet addresses: www/amazon.fr
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4.2 Font Different fonts (bold, italics, underlining or gras, italique, soulignement/ soulignage) are used to highlight letters, words or sentences. Ordinary (Roman) characters are described as caract`eres romains or caract`eres maigres: Il faut ´ecrire “curieux” en gras > curieux, pas en romain. Pour que ce mot se d´etache bien, tu l’´ecris en italique > parfait. Tu soulignes bien toute l’expression : La perfection n’est pas de ce monde. Italics are used for titles of books and operas: La peste (Camus), Crime et chˆ atiment (Dosto¨ıevski), Le paillasse (Leoncavallo). Generally, certain books, or sections within them, are not in italics: le ´vangile, le Code civil, any more than: le Coran, la Bible, l’Apocalypse, l’E Pater (Our Father), l’Ave (Hail Mary). Italics are used for proper names given to boats, airplanes and notices: le Reine Elizabeth; le Memphis belle; Sur l’enseigne on lisait : Coiffeuse et non Coiffeur. Any word or group of words which diverge from common usage can attract italics: foreign words, scientific terminology, slang, regional or dialectical terms: Je n’ai pas compris le mot zarzuela (Spanish dance), querbus robur (tree) non plus. Le mot pitchoune signifie jeune enfant. Je ne comprends pas la diff´erence entre eschatologie et scatologie. Aoˆ utat (moucheron) est un mot qu’on entend dans le Poitou (center of France).
4.3 Upper and lower case 4.3.1 Upper case Whether upper case (majuscules) or lower case (minuscules) is used constitutes a linguistic minefield. Grevisse and Goosse devote some ten closely argued pages to the topic, and it must be admitted that some of their overwhelmingly copious remarks have been distilled here, and we are grateful to them for it. At the same time, other material has been consulted. In the following cases, the upper case (capital letters) is used:
` ta place. . . (If I were you. . . ); 1. to start a sentence: A 2. for proper names, pseudonyms, nicknames: Jeanne, Jean-Paul Sartre, le Bien-Aim´e (nickname of Louis XV), Voltaire (pseudonym of Franc¸oisMarie Arouet); 3. for names designating divinities: Dieu (considered as a single and only god), J´esus-Christ, le R´edempteur (Redeemer), V´enus, Aphrodite, Bacchus, Dionysos, Priape, Titan, Prom´eth´ee, Zeus, Jupiter; 4. for names designating lofty positions: le Pape, le Pr´esident, le Roi, Sa ´minence, Son Excellence, Sa Saintet´e but when followed by Majest´e, Son E a name a lower-case letter occurs: le pape Benoˆıt XVI;
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6. 7.
8. 9. 10.
11.
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for names of feasts: l’Assomption, le Dimanche des Rameaux / les Rameaux (Palm Sunday), Pa ˆques, No¨el, la Semaine Sainte, l’Ascension, la Toussaint, Quasimodo (Lent), la Pentecˆote, la Fˆete-Dieu, le Ramadan (more a period than a festival, the end of which is the feast of A¨ıd), (jour d’) Actions de Grˆaces (Thanksgiving), Divali / Diwali; when referring to the cardinal points which have a proper character: la phase lunaire entre l’Orient et l’Occident; when using names of stars and constellations: la Terre (not to confuse Terre and terre – earth and soil), la Lune, le Soleil, la Grande / Petite Ourse, Saturne, V´enus; ´tat Canadien/ when referring to the state as a sovereign entity: l’E Colombien/Franc¸ais; ´tat et l’E ´glise se sont when speaking of government and church: L’E prononc´es contre la peine de mort; when writing abbreviations and acronyms: ONU (Organisation ´tats Am´ericains), OTAN des Nations Unies), OEA (Organisation des E (Organisation du Trait´e de l’Atlantique Nord); when using Roman numerals which indicate volume, chapter, assembly, royalty and emperor: Charles V (Quint), chapitre X du livre, les papes Jean-Paul I/II, les rois Louis XIV, XV, XVI; on signs: COMMISSARIAT, BOULANGERIE, BUREAU DE POSTE, PTT, ´E DU LOUVRE. Written accents are GENDARMERIE NATIONALE, MUSE now placed above capital letters (formerly, this was not the case); for the names of religious orders: l’Ordre du Mont Carmel (also = le Carmel), le Temple (but individual members are in lower case: les capucins, les templiers, les b´en´edictins); for prizes, distinctions and important cultural events: le Prix Renaudot/ Goncourt (French book prizes) / Nobel, les Oscars, la Foire du livre, le Moli`ere (French acting prize); ´lys´ees, l’Avenue de la when a noun forms part of the title: les Champs E Grande Arm´ee, le Cimeti`ere du P`ere Lachaise (in Paris); for nouns associated with nationalities: les Franc¸ais(es), les Argentin(e)s, les Tunisien(ne)s, les Angolais(es), les Am´ericain(e)s, les Australien(ne)s. This also includes the combination of ˆetre + nationality: Elle est Belge/Canadienne/Am´ericaine. Whether Belge, Canadienne and so on are adjectives or nouns is not clear for many French speakers. However, informed opinion is that they are nouns; for forms of address, both in letters and otherwise: Madame Dupont, Monsieur Bernard, Mlle Saulnier, Fr`ere Michaud, Sœur Micheline, mon R´ev´erend P`ere, ma R´ev´erende M`ere (but in these latter two the R could be lower case), la M`ere Sup´erieure, la Grande Muette (= the Army); for points on the compass (les quatre points cardinaux). Does one write Nord or nord, Sud or sud, Est or est, Ouest or ouest and their variants: N/nord-E/est; N/nord-O/ouest; S/sud-O/ouest; S/sud-O/ouest? This issue is
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as complicated as it is in English. Certain features can be clarified, however. When these points are referred to as nouns they seem to attract an upper-case initial: dans le Nord/Sud/Midi, dans l’Est/Ouest de la France, dans le Nord des ´ Etats-Unis, en Italie du Nord. When they are used as adjectives, they may take a lower-case initial: la r´egion sudouest/sud-est, although one could say: la r´egion du Sud-Ouest/Sud-Est. If a simple direction is implied, the likelihood is that the lower case is used: se diriger vers le nord/sud d’un pays. Some expressions do seem to be fixed: Le Grand Nord, le Sud-Est asiatique and, quoting Le petit Larousse: “Amundsen atteignit le pˆ ole Sud en 1911,” in which case one would say: le pˆole Nord. Yet Le petit Robert refers to le Pˆole Sud/Nord, using upper case for pˆole. Grevisse and Goosse speak of this subject with unusual hesitation. Le petit Robert is not decisively helpful either. Clearly, there is no standard and uniform way of presenting the points of the compass. One has the impression that, apart from some fixed expressions, it is a vraie foire d’empoigne (real free-for-all). 19. frequently when a general noun is invested with a specific meaning for a group of people or a nation with respect to events: la Cr´eation, la Gen`ese, la Chute, le D´eluge, l’Exode, la Diaspora, la Renaissance, la R´evolution (franc¸aise), la Terreur, la Grande Guerre, la R´esistance (franc¸aise/russe), le D´ebarquement (Normandy landings), l’Holocauste / la Shoah, la Guerre de l’Ind´ependance, la Guerre de la S´ecession (American Civil War). These nouns take a lower-case initial when used in a more general way, or when they are applied to events beyond the original one: J’ai fait une chute; l’exode vers le Midi en ´et´e; la disapora arm´enienne/arabe; la renaissance de ` l’int´erˆet pour la Chine; la gen`ese d’un ouvrage; le d´eluge du 14 juillet 1987 a Montr´eal.
4.3.2 Lower case In contrast to English lower case (minuscules) is used in the following cases: days of the week (see Chapter 62 on time): lundi, mardi, mercredi; months of the year: d´ecembre, janvier, f´evrier; seasons of the year: printemps, ´et´e. But upper case is used with important dates, festivals or proper names: Printemps de Prague, Vendredi Saint. Adjectives relating to countries and regions, whatever their derivations, are normally in lower case: le continent sud-am´ericain, le Sahara alg´erien, les plaines canadiennes, les autorit´es p´eruviennes, le territoire afghan, le gouvernement sri-lankais, la population togolaise. The pronoun je is written in lower case, except at the beginning of a sentence. This contrasts with the English I. Titles and names of dignitaries receive a lower-case initial when followed by a name: le roi Louis XIV, le pape Jean-Paul II, le pr´esident du Br´esil / de la R´epublique franc¸aise.
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Lower-case letters are given to names of books, operas, songs and articles, except the initial letter and proper names: Le nœud de vip`eres (Mauriac), Les pˆecheurs de perles (Bizet), Le temps des cerises (Yves Montand), Le bon usage (Grevisse and Goosse). It must be admitted that confusion reigns supreme here. Some authors use capitals on all the important words in a title, some just on nouns, some use lower case for the definite article, even if it is the first word. The safest method is undoubtedly the one recommended above. The names of musical notes appear in lower case: do, r´e, mi, fa, sol, la, si. Proper names that apply generically take a lower-case initial: C’est un v´eritable don juan, monsieur je sais tout. Many objects associated with inventors, discoverers, industrialists or anyone who has popularized something appear in lower case: un zeppelin, un braille. There is considerable hesitation here over upper and lower case. The same applies to the next three points (see also Chapter 9 on gender). Lower case is used for objects associated with places: un bordeaux (wine), un fez (hat typical of Fez, Morocco), C’est du limoges (It’s Limoges porcelain). Lower case is used for objects associated with commercial makes but that are considered generic: J’adore le martini / le vermouth sec / le pastis. Lower case is used for generic geographical names: le fleuve Amazone/Niger, le lac L´eman, l’ˆıle Maurice, la cordill`ere des Andes, la ville de Montr´eal, le cap Horn, le mont Blanc, les montagnes Rocheuses. But if the generic name forms part of the proper name, upper case is used: Val d’Is`ere, le Mont-Saint-Michel, le Val d’Aoste, la Sierra Madre (Mexico), la Sierra Nevada (Spain). Names of winds, unless personified in poetry or mythology, take a lowercase initial: z´ephir, bor´ee, mistral (cold wind in southern France), sirocco (hot wind blowing from the Sahara to southern Europe), la tramontane (northwest wind in France). Names of religions take a lower-case initial: brahmanisme, catholicisme, bouddhisme, islam, christianisme, protestantisme, juda¨ısme, mormonisme, christadelphianisme, adventisme, hindouisme, confucianisme. The names of tribes appear in lower case: les (ethnies/tribus) apaches/ berb`eres/comanches/mayas/incas/azt`eques/s´eminoles/sioux/touaregs. E-mail addresses do not normally require capital letters. Lower case seems always to suffice. If capital or lower-case are required, this would be indicated by the correspondent.
5 Agreement / L’accord
Below is a passage describing a hammam, a place of luxurious relaxation indulged in especially by females. It is an activity associated with the Arab and Turkish worlds, but is now a feature of French society. Note how important agreements are in French, as in all Romance languages. Especial attention is paid to agreement over verb endings, past tenses used with reflexive verbs, and the relationship between nouns and adjectives. Apparent also are features such as parties, a feminine plural describing the neuter on, and the varying use of plural verbs with singular nouns: quarante-trois degr´es [ . . . ] ´etaient/´etait difficile(s) a ` supporter; Bon nombre de femmes attendaient/attendait. Understand also that la plupart would only ever take a plural verb. A deceiving point is that the masculine adjective turc is turque in the feminine while grec produces grecque. Equally confusing could be the feminine of contigu>contig¨ ue where the absence of a diaresis would entail the nonpronunciation of the u. Many of these features are highlighted in the text. Some translations are provided. Note that the term hammam is well known in France. D´etente au hammam caf´e On est parties de bonne heure pour profiter au maximum de notre apr`esmidi. Le hammam traditionnel attire surtout les femmes : m`eres et filles, sœurs et amies. Ce genre de loisirs fait beaucoup d’autres adeptes d´esirant s’impr´egner de cette ambiance orientale. Cette atmosph`ere ` la d´etente, au repos, a ` la m´editation. Cet endroit d´elicate nous invite a est un havre pour l’esprit, un grand univers du rˆeve et du bien-ˆetre. Le caract`ere typique du lieu nous apporte une grande s´er´enit´e. Une bonne douche et un bain de vapeur ´etaient d´elicieux. Ce cadre arabo-turc ´evoque certains tableaux du miniaturiste alg´erien Mohamed Racim. En franchissant le seuil de la porte, les odeurs douces de savon parfum´e, les lueurs pˆ ales et vacillantes de bougies color´ ees ont suscit´e une profonde ´emotion. Les femmes d’un geste pudique se sont d´eshabill´ees puis se sont enroul´ees dans une grande serviette avant de traverser la premi`ere petite pi`ece. Dans un angle [corner] de celleci, l’eau fraˆıche s’´ecoulait dans un bassin de pierre. Le ruissellement continu et harmonieux de l’eau nous assurait un tr´esor de bienfaits,
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de v´eritables moments de relaxation. Cette salle du hammam est consacr´ee aux s´eances de massage et aux soins de la peau. Les huiles essentielles exhalent une odeur p´en´etrante et tr`es agr´eable de fleur d’oranger, de girofle [clove], de jasmin, de lavande, de rose ancienne, de violette et d’autres fragrances. La salle de soins corporels, qui remontent ` la nuit des temps [mists of time], est contig¨ ` la grande salle a ue a des ablutions. Au beau milieu de cette derni`ere, une dalle [flagstone] de taille colossale occupe la place d’honneur. Nous nous sommes ` allong´ees pour appr´ecier l’effet salutaire de la dalle chaude. Des corps a demi-nus d´eambulaient [strolled] ou se reposaient dans le clair-obscur de la chaleur moite [moist/humid] de la pi`ece. La moiteur de l’air ambiant, la lumi`ere tamis´ee [filtered] de cet endroit unique, la fraˆıcheur exquise de l’eau incitaient aux chuchotements et aux murmures. Bon nombre de femmes attendaient/ait avant de prendre un bain de vapeur car quarante-trois degr´es de temp´erature dans l’´etuve [steam room] ´etait/´etaient difficile(s) a ` supporter au premier abord. L’´etuve humide est le dernier endroit en vase clos [in an enclosed space] o` u les femmes goˆ utaient une paix profonde et se d´electaient [took delight in] dans des bains de vapeur provoquant la sudation [perspiration] et assurant une certaine d´etente.
Treatment of agreement appears throughout this book. For example, gender and number are analyzed in Part II, verbs and agreement of endings according to the subject receive attention in Part III, tenses according to the coincidence of main and subordinate clauses are dealt with in Part III, while agreement of adjectives with nouns is examined in Parts VI and VIII. Nevertheless, at the risk of some slight overlap between the present chapter and a variety of chapters appearing through the book, it seems helpful to deal in a general way with the concept of agreement between various grammatical accidences because it is a fundamental feature of all Romance languages, and French is no exception. Specifically, agreement arises when a variable word (called the receveur in French) receives from another word in the same sentence (called the donneur) its particular morphological features: La terre est ronde; Les absents ont toujours tort; la fleur que tu m’avais donn´ee pour mon anniversaire. As opposed to English where words are modified much less frequently than in all Romance languages, many French words are subject to great variation, and change according to tense, person, function, number and gender. However, one can distinguish two main types of agreement (1 and 2): 1. Nominal agreement, which entails the coincidence of gender and number. This kind of agreement establishes the correct relationship between the noun and article or adjectives which accompany it: la maison bleue, ces gˆateaux succulents; it also governs the relationship between a pronoun and its antecedent or subsequent feature: les filles que j’ai vues
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` ton mari; it affects the way in which the hier; J’ai remis ton portable a subject relates to the attribute: Son fils est un v´eritable saint; the way the subject relates to the complement: Annick se trouvait tr`es fatigu´ee; or the way the subject relates to a verb in the passive: Ces maisons ont e´t´e construites en 1965. 2. Verbal agreement, which requires coincidence of number and person (subject) with verb ending: La voiture roulait trop rapidement; Les garc¸ons cuisinent bien.
5.1 General Rules (which are considerably developed in the appropriate chapters) Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular form a group which agrees with the verb, adjective or past participle in the plural: Le sel et l’eau sont n´ecessaires a ` la vie; Il faut que les oignons et les carottes soient bien mijot´es; ` l’oxyg`ene, l’hydrog`ene, et le carbone, c’est l’atmosph`ere qui nous les fournit. Quant a Two or more nouns or pronouns, of different gender, are qualified by a masculine adjective or pronoun: Lucien et Franc¸oise se sont aperc¸us en mˆeme temps de leur erreur; Le chemin et mˆeme les tombes ´etaient couverts de mauvaises herbes; Ni les garc¸ons ni les filles n’´etaient venus a ` la fˆete du village; Amandine et toi, vous ˆetes blonds comme vos grands-parents. If a noun is coordinated with the second-person pronoun (tu), the verb is placed in the vous form: Papa et toi, vous venez au cin´ema ? If one of the pronouns is in the first person, agreement is made in the u nous avons dans´e / first-person plural, or with on: Tu t’en souviens, le jour o` on a dans´e, toi et moi ?; Ni lui ni moi n’avons rep´er´e l’erreur. Where there is a single determiner for various nouns, each noun is preceded by, for example, the definite article, or the possessive adjective: La m`ere, la fille et son amie sont reparties ensemble; Le p`ere et la belle-fille se sont revus il y a quelques jours; Ils ont vol´e mon v´ehicule et mes clefs. However, if the nouns refer to the same person, the loss of one determiner is permissible: La m`ere et repr´esentante de l’entreprise a dit que le chiffre d’affaires est prometteur. The loss of the determiner is also allowed when the nouns are preceded by an adjective: Virginie a l’habitude de faire son propre pain et rˆoti. But if, for example, the second noun were in the plural, a plural determiner would be required: La maˆıtresse de maison a l’habitude de faire son propre pain et ses pizzas. The determiner is repeated even if the same concept is involved: J’admire votre int´erˆet et votre enthousiasme; Les fenˆetres et les balcons ´etaient ferm´es. When an adjective follows more than one noun, the preferred form for the adjective is masculine plural: Ses cheveux et sa barbe ´etaient emmˆel´es. If the nouns are conceived as a single unit, the adjective agrees in gender and number with the nearest noun: le tourment et la souffrance universelle;
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l’influence, la volont´e, le g´enie napol´eonien; les mouvements et les habitudes les plus quotidiennes. When an adjective is placed before one or more nouns, the adjective ateau fort; Le roi agrees with the first noun: les vieux donjons et tours du chˆ d´etruisit son propre royaume et dynastie. These constructions without the second determiner would be of a high register. When an adjective is placed after the noun which itself is linked to another noun by the conjunction ou, the adjective is placed in the plural, provided that the adjective does not apply exclusively to that second noun: Un bain ou une douche sont b´en´efiques pour se relaxer; Un temps de repos ou du moins une pause sont n´ecessaires pour se ressourcer. More than one adjective in the singular can modify a plural noun when they define different parts of that noun: les peaux blanche et noire; les langues allemande et russe; les intentions franc¸aise et belge. Plurals in titles of books, paintings etc. attract a singular verb: Les dieux ont soif de Anatole France est un roman extraordinaire; Les conqu´erants de azquez m’a toujours fascin´e; Malraux se d´eroule en Asie; Las meninas de Vel´ but it is not rare to find a plural verb here: Les dieux ont soif sont un ancien ouvrage de jeunesse. Nouns contained in titles of novels, paintings and so on do not affect adjectives which remain unchanged in the masculine singular: La peste de Camus n’est pas trop compliqu´e a ` lire; Suite franc¸aise d’Ir`ene Nemirovsky est passionnant comme roman. When a cardinal functions as an ordinal, it is usually masculine: la page num´ero un; Trouvez la page vingt et un; En tennis, Venus Williams est num´ero un mondial. The nouns altesse, majest´e, seigneurie (lordship) and excellence attract feminine determiners and adjectives, irrespective of the sex of the person referred to: son Altesse Royale, sa Majest´e Imp´eriale, sa Gracieuse Majest´e George VI / Victoria, sa Gracieuse Excellence; Milord, votre Seigneurie est trop bonne. However, if the adjective operates as a complement, it corresponds to the sex of the person: Sa Majest´e Imp´eriale est parti(e) ce matin. The e would be added if the person referred to as Majest´e were female. When on refers to persons in the plural, the adjective is placed in the plural: On est contents de retrouver nos amis en Dordogne; On est partis de bonne heure ce matin pour les rejoindre. Conversely, in literary style, if an author chooses to remain neutral and refers to him/herself as nous, then a singular adjective or past participle applies: Nous sommes convaincu(e)/persuad´e(e) que tu as pris la meilleure d´ecision. If on refers specifically to females, corresponding adjectives or past participles are feminine: Quand on est belle et blonde, on a des chances de plaire; Eh bien, petite, est-on toujours fˆ ach´ee ? If the coordinated elements are grammatically neutral, like infinitives, the verb is in the singular: Additionner et soustraire est facile; Ni ce que tu dis
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ni ce qu’elle pense n’est possible. But, if the complement suggests a plural idea or is plural, then the verb is plural: Informer et proposer des opinions sont deux buts pour les journalistes. A disjunctive or contrastive ou is used with either a singular or a plural verb: Quand un individu ou un groupe d’individus s’oppose au gouvernement; La force ou la ruse lui permettra de l’emporter; Si le fr`ere ou la sœur acceptent de venir en Suisse; Son p`ere ou sa m`ere reviendront demain soir. Yet logic often prevails, as in the following sentence: Pierre ou Paul sera colonel de ce r´egiment (only one colonel per regiment). There is similarly uncertainty with the negation ni . . . ni. It is possible to say both: Ni Pierre ni Paul ne viendra and Ni Pierre ni Paul ne viendront. When stating the gender of a noun, the adjective is masculine: Tˆete n’est pas masculin, c’est f´eminin; Maison ne peut pas ˆetre masculin. When the collective noun includes the person speaking, the first- or second-person plural obtains, particularly in R1 speech: Vous, les anciens, vous parlez toujours du pass´e; Les gens de th´eaˆtre, nous sommes tous d’accord. When a quantifying noun is followed by de + noun in the plural, in most cases the verb can be in the singular or plural. Logic requires a plural verb while grammar requires a singular verb (see also Chapter 10 on number for a full development of this issue). It must be stated that the tendency is to put the verb in the plural. A selection of quantifiers includes: le quart de, le tiers de, (bon) nombre de, quantit´e de, une douzaine/centaine de, la majorit´e de, une minorit´e de, un groupe de, la moiti´e de, une infinit´e de, une horde de, le reste de, dix pour cent de: Le quart de ses ´electeurs sont rest´es chez eux; Bon nombre d’´etudiants ne vient/viennent plus aux cours; Quantit´e de gens reste(nt) assez fortun´es malgr´e l’inflation galopante; Dix pour cent de la population a/ont vot´e en faveur du parti des Verts; Une infinit´e de gens a/ont cru cette nouvelle; Le reste des spectateurs a/ont conspu´e l’arbitre; La cohorte d’´etudiants s´electionn´es a/ont donn´e satisfaction. The singular subject of a collective noun such as famille, gouvernement, police, troupeau, arm´ee is normally followed by a singular verb, whereas in English usage is far from clear: La famille habite au Qu´ebec depuis trente ans; Le gouvernement canadien ne s’est pas encore prononc´e a ` ce sujet; La police le recherche ` main arm´ee. toujours pour vol a When an adjective or past participle comes before a noun, variation occurs in the masculine and feminine form, and this depends on the context and meaning: Veuillez trouver ci-joint des dossiers de candidature. But: Une fois partie, Audrey retourna directement en Martinique; La ministre a rendu publiques ses intentions. Usage with numbers varies, and the verb can be influenced by the complement: Mille euros e´tait une coquette somme (here the complement is singular); Cinq minutes d’attente arrangera tout; Six mille dollars ne suffiront pas pour rembourser la dette; Quarante-cinq degr´es de chaleur dans le Sina¨ı ´etait/´etaient
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` supporter; Vingt-cinq ans de guerre leur ont appris la valeur de la impossibles a paix. Past participles also agree with nouns in the following way: Lucile a laiss´e la porte ouverte/ferm´ee. The construction un de ceux / une de celles qui leads to a plural verb: J’´etais a l’ˆıle d’en face; Un de ceux / Une de un de ceux / une de celles qui ont nag´e jusqu’` celles qui ont vot´e; J’´etais un de ceux qui ont manifest´e dans la rue. The construction C’est moi qui would require a first-person verb, but in colloquial R1 style, one could easily hear the verb in the third person: C’est moi qui l’ai ´ecrit; C’est moi qui l’a ´ecrit (R1); Similarly with C’est nous qui: C’est nous qui avons mont´e la pi`ece de th´ea ˆtre; C’est nous qui ont mont´e la pi`ece de ˆtre (R1). th´ea With respect to the age of a person, usage over the verb in the singular age tendre / and plural varies, but logic seems to dictate here: Vingt ans est l’ˆ ˆge determines the singular); Seize ans est un a des folies (here, a ˆge o` u on peut ˆge determines the singular); Chantal a trente ans accomplis / se d´efouler (here, a a ses vingt ans. r´evolus / bien sonn´es and depuis l’enfance jusqu’` There is considerable hesitation over whether a singular or plural verb is used with respect to time recorded by the clock, but here again there is some logic: Cinq heures est le moment o` u commencent les courses de taureaux (the singular est is determined by moment); Dix heures sonna is acceptable but Dix heures sonn`erent appears more frequently: Est-ce que onze heures vont bientˆot sonner ? Usage over gender and verb is uncertain with the following: esp`ece, fac¸on, genre, mani`ere, sorte, type, putain (R1); un esp`ece de charlatan/sorcier (R1 but now establishing itself in the written language); C’´etait une esp`ece de balcon garni ` de fleurs; une esp`ece de cr´etin qui n’a jamais pu ˆetre rec¸u au bac; J’arrive pas a ` sa comprendre ce putain de mode d’emploi !; Ce genre de r´ev´elations contribuent a r´eputation bizarre; Ce genre de lunettes fait fureur; Ce n’est pas le genre de r´eponse qu’elle aurait fait l’ann´ee derni`ere; Toute sorte de propos s’ensuivirent.
5.2 Rules over agreement with verbs, and especially the use of eˆ tre and the past participle Note that the rules below form part of a general introduction to agreement and that much more detailed analysis occurs in subsequent chapters. Many French verbs are conjugated with avoir, but a good number are conjugated with ˆetre, and we concentrate precisely on these latter verbs since they offer more complications. These latter verbs are not only troublesome for foreign learners of French but also for less informed French speakers, since the variations in the past participles are frequently, and logically, not heard in speech. Compare: Je l’ai entendu and je l’ai entendue (I heard him/her) or Nous les avons vus and Nous les avons vues (We saw them, i.e., males/females).
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There is a group of verbs that are conjugated with ˆetre. We list just a few here since a fuller list appears with comprehensive treatment in Chapter 14: aller, partir, rentrer, revenir, venir. These are all used intransitively. In other words, they do not take a direct object, except for, at least in this list, rentrer, which may be used transitively. When these verbs are used in the past tense (perfect, pluperfect, future in the past, etc.), the past participle varies according to gender and number. Thus: Je suis all´e is used by a male speaker but Je suis all´ee is used by a female speaker. Nous sommes all´es is used by a male or female speaker when referring to a mixed-gender group, while Nous sommes all´ees would be used by a female with reference to an all-female group. The extra e/es for the feminine form highlights a difficulty that runs throughout the French language, and it is a difficulty shared by Italian, but not by Spanish, so those who study Spanish are spared this complication. The full conjugation of aller, as well as of other similarly conjugated verbs, is to be found in Chapter 30. There is a large group of verbs called “reflexive” verbs, and these are all conjugated with ˆetre in compound tenses, when they are used reflexively. (Most of them are conjugated with avoir when they are used non-reflexively.) The past participles of these reflexive verbs (e.g., s’asseoir, s’habiller, se laver, se lever) vary with gender and number like the verb aller above. In other words, a male speaker would say Je me suis assis but a female speaker would say Je me suis assise. Still following the pattern illustrated above with aller, a male or female speaker, when referring to a mixed-gender group, would say Nous nous sommes assis while a female speaker, when referring exclusively to an allfemale group, would say Nous nous sommes assises. The irregular verb s’asseoir is used as an example here since one can actually hear a difference in sound between the masculine, unpronounced s and the feminine, pronounced se. Had one used the example Liliane s’est habill´ee, as opposed to Marc s’est habill´e, no difference would have been observed in sound between the two past participles. In the sentence Anne-Marie s’est lav´ee, the reflexive pronoun is a direct object, which is why there is agreement between Anne-Marie and the past participle. However, if one had said Anne-Marie s’est lav´e les mains, the direct object is no longer the reflexive se but the noun mains. In this case there is no variation in the past participle. This feature causes considerable confusion even to native French speakers. When a pronoun precedes the verb avoir in compound tenses, the past participle agrees with that pronoun and, all too frequently, no difference is heard between the two following participles of the verb voir: Je l’ai vu au concert/Je l’ai vue au concert (I saw him/her at the concert). Similarly: Je les ai vus (I saw them [males or mixed gender]); Je les ai vues (I saw them [females alone]). When a relative pronoun linking a main and subordinate clause refers to a noun coming before the verb, the past participle agrees in number
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` mon p`ere; and gender with that noun: La voiture que j’ai conduite appartient a Les ami(e)s que j’ai vu(e)s hier m’ont envoy´e un texto. Needless to add, lack of difference in pronunciation in these two past participles is also a source of confusion for French speakers. When the perfect tense involves an active agent, there is no agreement with the past participles. However, when the verb is in the passive, there is agreement. Compare the two sets of sentences: 1. Le mac¸on a construit la maison and La maison a ´et´e construite par le mac¸on; 2. L’arbitre a expuls´e deux joueurs and Deux joueurs ont ´et´e expuls´es par l’arbitre.
Part II
6 The definite article / L’article d´efini
Below is a passage commenting upon a particular film that attracted the critics’ attention in France in 2008, and was a great box-office success, both in France and in Europe. It follows the comic activities of a person responsible for a mail office in the south of France who is sent to continue his work in the far northeast. The cultural, climatic and even linguistic shock, for he is faced with a dialect of French (le ch’tis), that he undergoes is considerable, but he survives and starts to derive great enjoyment from his stay in the north. The passage illustrates the use and variety of definite articles, from the masculine and feminine singular (le/la), to the elision of the e and a (l’), the plural form (les/des), as well as the combinations with the ` and de. prepositions a Le succ`es des « Ch’tis » En juin 2008, le meilleur film franc¸ais qui ait connu une grande r´eussite s’intitule Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis. La com´edie de Dany Boon ` Salonbrosse l’histoire de Philippe Abrams, responsable de la poste a de-Provence. Le fonctionnaire, contrari´e par le mauvais caract`ere de son ´epouse Julie, triche pour obtenir sa mutation [transfer] sur la Cˆ ote d’Azur. L’administration d´ecouvre la supercherie [deception/hoax] et ` Bergues, un village qui compte un peu plus de Philippe sera envoy´e a 4 000 habitants. Ce lieu se trouve dans le d´epartement du Nord et la ` 40 km de la sortie du Tunnel r´egion du Nord-Pas-de-Calais. Il est situ´e a sous la Manche. Pour la famille Abrams, originaire du Sud de la France, le Nord est une r´egion sinistre. Tous les st´er´eotypes y sont pr´esents : des alcooliques, des paysans qui ne parlent pas correctement le franc¸ais, des personnes sans ´education qui n’ont pas le sens de l’hygi`ene alimentaire et qui parlent une langue incompr´ehensible, le « cheutimi ». Philippe partira tout seul. Avec grand ´etonnement, il fait connaissance d’une ´equipe de travail extraordinaire, de gens sympathiques, d’une belle r´egion. Il ` la fois le facteur et le carillonneur [bell se lie d’amiti´e avec Antoine, a ringer] du village. Lorsque Philippe rentre chez lui, son ´epouse n’en revient pas (is amazed / can’t get over it) ! Elle refuse de croire que son ´epoux se plaˆıt dans le Nord. Julie pense mˆeme que Philippe lui raconte ` Julie qu’il est difficile sciemment des histoires. Philippe fait croire a
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` peu, Philippe de vivre dans la petite ville du Nord de la France. Peu a s’embrouille [becomes enmeshed] dans les mensonges qu’il raconte.
The definite article is often treated with gender, which is understandable since it is intimately linked to gender, and more specifically, to the gender of nouns. However, the ways in which the definite article is used in French differ quite considerably from those obtaining in English, and it is these different ways that are examined in this chapter, while the relationship of the definite article with the gender of nouns is treated in Chapter 9. One thing is certain: French seems to use the definite article more than English does. Mail/Post Office is a typical example: la Poste. The definite article is the determiner of a noun with which it agrees in gender and number; it always precedes a noun. It takes three forms: masculine singular le examples:
le livre > la table >
feminine singular la
masculine/feminine plural les
les livres les tables
Before a vowel or a mute h, there is elision, and the vowel of the definite article is lost: le > la >
l’: l’arbre, l’homme, l’iris, l’ordinateur l’: l’universit´e, l’heure, l’eau
The plural form always remains the same: les arbres, les hommes, les universit´es, les eaux thermales. Before an aspirate h, there is no elision (le h´eros, la hauteur, la haie d’honneur) although note that with h´ero¨ıne, there is elision (l’h´ero¨ıne) since, strangely enough, the h here is not aspirate. There is no liaison either with an aspirate h (les Hollandais, les haricots) although in colloquial speech, and less elegantly, one does hear liaison in these two examples. Elision does not take place with following vowels in the cases below: when le precedes the number un: le un (number one); ` sa when le precedes an isolated vowel that stands by itself: Le a n’est pas a place (also: le e/i/o/u). ` and de: The articles le and les (not la) contract with the prepositions a ` + le > a ` + les > a
au aux
de + le > de + les >
du des
Nous allons au cin´ema / au stade; Je vais au Canada. La professeure parle aux ´el`eves / aux ´etudiantes; Audrey va aux E´tats-Unis. But: Laurent parle a ` la fille; C´eline va a ` la rivi`ere. la table du salon les feuilles des arbres; la tige des plantes
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The article is used to denote a person or thing considered unique: Le pr´esident de la R´epublique pr´eside le Conseil des Ministres du mercredi; Le Soleil ´eclaire la Terre. When a noun has a general or abstract value, or refers to the elements or features of nature, animals or plants, of which only one can be supposed to be under consideration, the definite article is used: L’argent ne fait pas le bonheur; L’envie est un p´ech´e capital; L’homme n’est pas immortel; Le soleil peut ˆetre dangereux pour la peau; La cigogne est un oiseau migrateur; Les jeunes adorent les jeux vid´eo. The article is never immediately preceded by other determiners, except tout: Tout le gouvernement s’opposa au projet; L’infirmi`ere a travaill´e toute la ` la piscine tous les jours. nuit; Ma fille va a The definite article is used in the following expressions: Arrˆete de faire le mariol(le); Fais pas le con ! (R1); Il fait toujours le clown / le paillasse; Il fait le malin; Mon p`ere fumait la pipe; La victime ´etait dans le coma. The definite article does not always precede a noun: le oui/non des ´electeurs. Technically, each noun is preceded by the definite article: Elle a mis la confiture et le beurre sur la table; J’ai vu le scooter et la bicyclette dans le jardin. But if there is a close association between nouns, the second, or even ´tat ont accueilli la third, article may disappear: Les ministres et secr´etaires d’E r´eforme avec enthousiasme; Les actrices, chanteuses et danseuses ont organis´e un beau spectacle. When a list of nouns forms a kind of enumeration, and this occurs especially in writing, the article is often left out: Hommes, femmes, enfants, animaux, v´ehicules, tout a ´et´e emport´e par l’ouragan; Professeurs, ´etudiants, admin` la manifestation; Boulets, mitrailles, obus, istrateurs, ouvriers ont tous particip´e a ¸ca explosait partout; Incin´erateur: pour brˆ uler feuilles, branches, papiers, mauvaises herbes en toute s´ecurit´e; Bˆ ache industrielle: pour terrassement, chantier, toiture, bois, agriculture. The definite article has a possessive value: Sabrina a ferm´e les yeux; St´ephanie m’a touch´e la main; On lui a march´e sur le pied; Ce bruit me donne mal a ` la tˆete; Aur´elien ´ecrit de la main gauche; Axelle marchait le dos courb´e, les mains derri`ere le dos; Diane s’est coup´e le doigt. The definite article is used in the following superlative constructions: les aches les plus difficiles de la maison. Les cannot jours les plus chauds de l’´et´e; les tˆ be excluded from this construction. The definite article may be used before an infinitive which is almost construed as a noun, and is especially common in le boire et le manger. Both definite and indefinite article (see Chapter 7) may be omitted before a noun in apposition (i.e., when it explains a preceding noun): Washington, capitale des ´ Etats-Unis; Hemingway, auteur de Pour qui sonne le glas. The article may be omitted after the conjunction ou, before a noun that is merely a synonym or explanation of the preceding noun: le vestibule ou entr´ee de la maison; Phoenix est la capitale ou ville principale de l’Arizona.
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` is In numerous grammatical terms suggesting the meaning “in the,” a ` l’indicatif, au pass´e compos´e/ joined to le in the following way: au subjonctif, a ` l’imparfait, au pluriel/singulier/masculin/f´eminin. pr´esent/conditionnel, a Peoples and languages require a preceding definite article: les Martiniquais, les Colombiens, les Grecs, les Italiens, les Japonais; l’anglais am´ericain/britannique, l’arabe, le chinois, l’h´ebreu, le franc¸ais qu´eb´ecois, le turc. Seasons, dates and festivals similarly require the definite article: l’hiver, le printemps, l’´et´e, l’automne; l’appel du dix-huit juin lanc´e par le G´en´eral de Gaulle; le lundi premier mai (Fˆete du Travail); le quatre juillet (Fˆete de l’Ind´ependance Am´ericaine); le quatorze juillet (prise de la Bastille de 1789; Fˆete nationale de la France), la Pentecˆote, la Toussaint, le jour de l’an, l’Action de Grˆ aces (Thanksgiving); but No¨el and Pˆ aques. Months and days of the week do not always require the definite article: d´ecembre est revenu; Ce fut pendant les derniers jours d’octobre; d´ebut avril; Viens mardi ou mercredi, cela m’est ´egal. But when these nouns are qualified, they are preceded by the definite article: le mardi suivant/pr´ec´edent; le jeudi 6 mai. Furthermore, when precision is necessary, as with opening or closing times of shops, one sees: Ferm´e du samedi 1er novembre au lundi 10 novembre and dans la journ´ee/matin´ee/soir´ee du dimanche. If a customary activity is suggested with a day of the week, matin, jour, apr`es-midi, soir or week-end, the definite article occurs. The idea is one of during, in the course of, at: Le dimanche, Lucile allait toujours a ` la messe; Le samedi, son mari allait au foot; Le matin, de bonne heure, Benjamin fait du jogging; Henri s’entraˆınait au basket le soir; Armelle travaille la nuit et dort le jour; L’apr`es-midi, on se promenait sur la plage; Le week-end, on se repose. The definite article is used before colors: Je pr´ef`ere le bleu au gris; Le blanc me plaˆıt plus que le vert; Le mauve est ma couleur favorite; Cet ´et´e, le rouge et le ` la mode. beige sont tr`es a The definite article occurs before titles: le Cardinal, le Pr´esident, la Pr´esidente, la Reine, le mar´echal Leclerc, le premier ministre, le g´en´eral Legrand, le professeur Dubois, la professeure Martin, (le) Monsieur Picaud, Le Docteur Jivago (novel by Boris Pasternak). Madame and Mademoiselle have no definite article, yet dame and demoiselle do: la demoiselle d’Avignon (Mireille Mathieu – celebrated singer), Les demoiselles d’Avignon (painting by Picasso). The definite article occurs before family names, which remain in the singular: les Martin, les Durand, les Lano¨e, les Curie (Pierre and Marie). Names of families which begin with the article do not suffer a contraction of de + le into du: les tableaux de Le Nain; le style (de) Le Corbusier. The definite article is used in colloquial style when referring to a person, and this is not in any way pejorative: La Louise trempait le pain dans la soupe; Il n’y a pas parmi vous la Suzanne Daumaison ?; Regarde ce qu’elle a fait, la MarieRose. Following the Italian pattern, names of artists, writers and so on are often, but not always, preceded by the definite article: l’Alighieri, le Corr`ege,
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le Caravage, le Tasse, l’Arioste. Sometimes le Vinci is used, as well as le Dante, but this is a false Italianism and is to be discouraged. In literary language, one comes across the definite article in the plural. This is a form of emphasis and still refers to a single writer: Les Corneille, les Racine, les Moli`ere ont illustr´e la sc`ene franc¸aise. Similarly (although this remark pertains to the indefinite article, it seems appropriate to make it here), the indefinite article is used in a derogatory manner when preceding names: Il est insupportable d’ˆetre command´e par un Coquereau, un Jean-Jean, un Moulin, un Focart, un Bouju !; Quand un Lyautey arrive au Maroc, il y trouve un pays en d´econfiture. When the title of a work or painting begins with the article, the contrac` and de: l’auteur du Misanthrope; les lecteurs des Fr`eres tion takes place with a Karamazov; Je songe toujours aux Pr´ecieuses ridicules. Titles of articles in reviews and books often begin with the definite article when a particular category is being referred to: Le livre contient plusieurs articles sur les animaux: « Les chats », « Les chiens », « Les lynx »; Tu as lu l’article « Les plantes » dans la revue Plantes et jardins?; « Le saule pleureur » est un excellent article. Yet there does seem to be some hesitation here: Il a ´evoqu´e le h´eros du Rouge et le noir as against la fin de Le rouge et le noir, where contraction and non-contraction are legitimate. The definite article occurs before measurements: trois euros le kilo; cinq dollars l’unit´e; une livre le litre; quatre-vingts kilom`etres a ` l’heure; En ce moment l’essence coˆ ute deux dollars le litre. The definite article precedes proper names when accompanied by an adjective which characterizes a person: le subtil Ulysse; la fid`ele Rossinante (Don Quixote’s horse); la blonde Venise; Tu as visit´e le vieux Qu´ebec / la Venise glorieuse ? One may also say Ulysse le subtil, Venise la blonde. The definite article is also used to give approximate figures: Je pense qu’elle a la quarantaine; Une bouteille de champagne coˆ ute dans les trente dollars. Notice the difference between parler franc¸ais/anglais and parler le franc¸ais/l’anglais. Parler le franc¸ais suggests the ability to speak French: Elle parle le chinois et le japonais. It is possible to imply the same idea with Elle parle chinois et japonais, but this is less emphatic and elegant. Furthermore, one could not use the definite article in the following sentence: Tout le monde parlait allemand quand je suis entr´ee dans la pi`ece. Both the definite and the indefinite articles may be used in the following expressions (my would be used in English): Elle s’est cass´e la jambe (droite/gauche); Elle s’est cass´e une jambe. In a general way, these two expressions amount to the same thing, but clearly the first one with la is more precise. It could be argued that many prepositional expressions function adjectivally and that the definite article is therefore excluded: un vaisseau de guerre; une voiture de sport; des tennis de plage; une batterie de cuisine. One inconsistency: l’arm´ee de l’air but: l’arm´ee de terre.
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There remain some distinct traces of the contracted definite article `es before a consonant or vowel, representing en + les. This is especially true of university titles: maˆıtre `es arts, bachelier/licenci´e/docteur `es science / `es lettres. The legal formula `es qualit´es signifying “a person exercising a function” subsists in documents: On m’avait demand´e de pr´esider cette conf´erence `es qualit´es. The names of some French towns also retain this archaic expression: Riom-`es-Montagnes (in central France), Sury-`es-Bois (in the Cher department). Numerous fixed expressions or proverbs do not include the definite article: Noblesse oblige, Contentement passe richesse, Blanc comme neige, Donner carte blanche, Il y a anguille sous roche, Erreur ne fait pas compte, Pierre qui roule n’amasse pas mousse. There are many expressions of the type: verb + direct object which do not have a definite (or indefinite) article: avoir bonne/mauvaise mine; avoir cours; avoir faim; avoir int´erˆet; avoir peur; avoir raison; chercher querelle; donner cong´e; donner cours; faire cause commune (avec); causer/poser probl`eme; garder rancune; prendre fait et cause; avoir/prendre rendez-vous; rendre justice; imposer (le) silence; perdre patience; tenir parole; demander pardon. Similarly: Armelle est en excellente sant´e, elle a tr`es bonne mine; ´ Emilie est malade ? Elle a tr`es mau` ce que tu viennes aujourd’hui; Tu as int´erˆet a ` investir vaise mine; Il y a avantage a tout ton argent dans cette entreprise-l` a; Il y a doute dans cette affaire; Il y a cours ` dix heures; La prof. a eu du mal a ` imposer silence aux aujourd’hui; J’ai cours a ´el`eves chahuteurs; Tais-toi, ou je perds patience; Il y a p´eril a ` partir sous la neige; J’ai eu/pris rendez-vous avec la dentiste. ` There are a great number of prepositional phrases with no article: a cheval/gu´e/confesse, avec soin; sans gˆene; sous clef; pour m´emoire; contre nature; hors ` travers champs; d’apr`es nature; avoir a ` cœur; perdre de vue; prˆeter sur concours; a ` jour; Elle va a ` confesse gages; mettre sous enveloppe; affirmer sous serment; mettre a ` cœur de pr´eparer l’agr´egation; Il le samedi soir (also: Elle vient de confesse); J’ai a ` travers champs pour arriver a ` temps; Les garc¸ons sont partis si vite faut couper a ` mettre a ` jour ma correspondance; que je les ai perdus de vue; Je passe la matin´ee a ` jour son dictionnaire bilingue. But mettre au La maison d’´edition vient de mettre a jour is also used with the idea of publishing a book, or divulging something: Ils ont fouill´e la terre pour mettre au jour les ruines de Ninive. To be added is the ` jour and mettre au jour with the idea fact that some writers use both mettre a of “publishing” a work. The definite article is used before un(e), viewed as a numeral (one). This is for euphony’s sake, and elegance of expression, and is mainly found in the written R3 register. The Livre de Poche’s publication of Camus’s La peste reads: L’un des grands romans de notre ´epoque. Yet this construction is also heard in speech: l’un des ministres a prononc´e un discours sur l’inflation; L’une des femmes publia un article contre le sexisme. Also for euphony’s sake, l’ precedes on in order to separate two vowels. It ` qui, a ` quoi, si: Il est ´evident que l’on a envoy´e la lettre occurs with que, ou, o` u, a
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` Robert; Je ne sais o` u l’on va; Tu sais a ` qui l’on a adress´e l’enveloppe ?; Si l’on a pr´ef`ere agir tout de suite, il faut aller en ville. The definite article is frequently not used with names of streets, avenues and so on, although the use of the preposition is possible: Je l’ai rencontr´ee rue Allende; Mes fr`eres habitent avenue Jean Jaur`es; On a pris rendez-vous boulevard ` sept heures; Mes Lecomte / passage Robin; Allez, on se revoit square Montcalm a parents demeurent impasse Leclerc; Ils ont un majestueux hˆotel particulier place des Vosges. Also: Je l’ai rencontr´ee dans la rue Allende / sur la Place des Vosges. The use of the definite article, as opposed to the indefinite article, can create a kind of stress or insistence: C’est la grande actrice (She really is a great actress); C’est la folie or C’est de la pure folie (It’s sheer madness); C’est la belle vie ! (It’s a wonderful life!); C’est la belle affaire ! (It’s a fine business!) Here, irony is implied. The definite article is also used with geographical names (see also Chapter 64). The definite article is used with: 1. names of continents: L’Asie est le plus vaste et le plus peupl´e des continents; L’Am´erique est divis´ee en Am´erique du Nord, Am´erique Centrale et Am´erique du Sud; L’Europe est le plus petit des continents; 2. names of countries (some are masculine but more are feminine; see Chapter 64 on gender): Le Br´esil/Cambodge/Canada/Danemark/Japon/ Mexique/Portugal/Qu´ebec (as opposed to just Qu´ebec for the city), les ´ Etats-Unis, la Belgique/France/Grande-Bretagne/Suisse/Su`ede, l’Alg´erie/Afrique du Sud/E´gypte; 3. names of mountains: le Caucase/Jura, l’Himalaya/Oural (or les Monts Oural), les Alpes bernoises/vaudoises, les (montagnes) Rocheuses, la Cordill`ere des Andes; 4. names of oceans and seas: l’(oc´ean) Atlantique, le Pacifique (oc´ean not required here), l’oc´ean Indien (oc´ean required here), la (mer) M´editerran´ee, la mer Morte, la mer Baltique; 5. names of rivers: l’Amazone/Euphrate, le Colorado/Danube/Jourdain/Mississippi/Missouri/Nil/Parana/Rhin/Rhˆone/R´ıo Grande (final e pronunced as ´ e)/ Tage/Tibre, la Loire/Seine/Tamise; 6. names of lakes: le lac de Bourget, le lac d’Annecy, le lac Constance/Huron/ L´eman/Ontario/Sup´erieur; 7. names of regions, departments and states within countries: l’Ain/ Arizona/Ohio (masculine), le Brabant/Doubs/Labrador/Manitoba/Pas-deCalais/Qu´ebec (to be distinguished from Qu´ebec, the city)/Yukon, l’Alberta/ Amazonie/Andalousie/Alsace/ˆIle de France/Is`ere (feminine), la Californie/ Caroline du Nord/du Sud/Castille/Flandre Occidentale/Patagonie/Saskatchewan/ Toscane/Moravie/Sib´erie/Wallonie. The preposition en is not normally used in conjunction with le with reference to countries: en France/Espagne/Nouvelle-Angleterre.
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The definite article is not used with Isra¨el: Un conflit opposa Isra¨el et les pays arabes. Neither is it used with the names of the following islands: Born´eo, Chypre, Cuba, Ha¨ıti, Java, Mad`ere, Madagascar, Majorque, Malte. Thus: les populations grecque et turque de Chypre; le r´egime communiste de ` Madagascar, le riz et le manioc constituent l’alimentation de la populaCuba; A tion. However, certain islands (seen as countries) do take the definite article: la Barbade/Grande-Bretagne/Grenade, l’Irlande/Islande, la Jama¨ıque/NouvelleZ´elande/Trinit´e-et-Tobago, as do some others (not seen as independent countries): la Corse/Cr`ete/Guadeloupe/Martinique/R´eunion/Sardaigne/Sicile. Thus: la capitale de la Cr`ete/Corse/Sardaigne/Sicile. Generally speaking, the preposition de (meaning of or from), in conjunction with le/les which precedes masculine countries, regions and states, ´tats-Unis / du Canada; leads to du/des: Sabrina est revenue du Danemark / des E le roi du Maroc; les Incas du P´erou; les Azt`eques du Mexique; Fernande est revenue du Qu´ebec (but de Qu´ebec when referring to the city); Quelle est la capitale du Br´esil ?; J’adore les vins du Chili / du Roussillon; Mme de S´evigny a fait connaˆıtre les vins du Tricastin. Geographical names beginning with the article are contracted: Les stagiaires vont au Caire pour suivre un stage intensif d’arabe; Adeline est rentr´ee du Touquet; Le notaire du Havre (novel by Georges Duhamel). With feminine nouns de or de la is used to signify from or of. Contrary to the rule offered by some English grammars of French, de and de la are used in this context, although de alone may be more common: Laetitia est rentr´ee de la/de France; Mohammed vient de l’/d’Alg´erie; l’histoire de la/de Belgique; les vins de la/de Bulgarie; les rois de la/de R´epublique tch`eque. The definite article is not used with names of cities and towns, ` Berne/Bruxelles/Londres/New except for some most notable exceptions: a York/Ottawa/Paris. Some exceptions in France where the definite article forms part of the name and is therefore in upper case are: Les Andelys, La Baule, Le Creusot, Le Havre, L’Isle-Adam, Le Mans, Le Puy, La Rochelle. With `/de La Baule, au/du ` and de we have: Aux/Des Andelys, a the prepositions a Creusot, au/du Havre, a `/de La Rochelle. Some exceptions elsewhere are: Le Caire, La Havane, La Haye, La Mecque, La Nouvelle-Orl´eans. With the preposi`/de La Havane, a `/de La Haye, ` and de we have: au/du Cap, au/du Caire, a tions a `/de La Mecque, a `/de La Nouvelle-Orl´eans. a It is quite obvious that the towns and cities which have the masculine definite article as part of their name lead to an inextricable problem when ` and de. The definite article which they are preceded by the prepositions a would be in upper case for these towns and cities becomes lower case in conjunction with these two prepositions. There exist certain differences between usage in France and usage in Belgium, Switzerland and Quebec.
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1. In Belgium one would hear: La moiti´e du pays est sous eau as opposed to ` selle (to evacuate the bowels) instead of aller sous les eaux in France; aller a ` la selle; de commun accord instead of d’un commun accord; Les frais sont a ` a charge du vendeur instead of a` la charge du vendeur; Il v´erifia la porte de rue instead of la porte de la rue. ` louer : appartement a 2. In Switzerland one would hear: A ` disposition instead of disponible. ` matin, a ` soir instead of au matin, au soir. 3. In Quebec one would hear: a Much ink seems to have been unnecessarily spilled over the differences between use and non-use of the definite article in French. Some grammarians see a distinction between les rois de France and les rois de la France, and between l’histoire de France and l’histoire de la France. The definite article may be seen in writing but, most emphatically in speech, one only hears les rois de France / l’histoire de France, so that the definite article is disappearing in this context. An example of both in writing is offered by two books by the French Academy writer Andr´e Maurois’s Histoire d’Angleterre and Histoire de la France. For the use of the definite article with common medical terms see Chapter 8, Section 2.
7 The indefinite article / L’article ind´efini
Note that, in a general way, the indefinite articles correspond to the English a, an, some. The forms of the indefinite article are: Masculine singular Feminine singular Masculine and feminine plural un une des Do not confuse the plural of the indefinite article des with the contracted form of the definite article de + les: Les jouets des enfants sont ´etal´es sur le tapis. The indefinite article is used: 1. before countable nouns (noms comptables, i.e., nouns that can be ` roulettes; Mon fr`ere m’a counted) : J’ai achet´e une bicyclette et des patins a envoy´e un courriel de Chine; Son fianc´e lui a envoy´e r´eguli`erement des e-mails des E´tats-Unis; 2. when the noun points to an unidentified person or object: Un client a appel´e. Il n’a pas laiss´e son nom / de nom (we do not know who has called); ` qui ?; “J’ai une id´ee !” “Ah ! Qu’est-ce J’ai trouv´e des gants par terre. Ils sont a que c’est ?”; 3. when the noun is given a particular significance by an adjective: Du haut de cette colline, on d´ecouvre un paysage magnifique; 4. when the noun is given a particular significance by a noun complement: Ce tableau repr´esente un paysage d’hiver ; 5. when a relative subordinate clause is involved: C’est un paysage qui fait rˆever. 6. in certain set expressions which do not require the indefinite article in an ordinary and non-affective context but which, when used in an emphatic or exclamatory way, attract the indefinite article and end on rising intonation: J’ai faim/soif but J’avais une faim/soif ! Similar comparisons apply to the verb faire: Il faisait froid/chaud and Il faisait un froid / une chaleur ! (note chaleur and not chaud here). When the plural noun is preceded by an adjective, des is converted to de: J’ai achet´e des roses but: J’ai achet´e de magnifiques roses; Ce jeune pianiste a fait des progr`es but: Ce jeune pianiste a fait de grands progr`es. However, in R1
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colloquial language, there is a strong tendency to keep the article des in the second examples above: Ce jeune pianiste a fait des grands progr`es; R´emi ` l’examen. This construction is even creeping into the a eu des bonnes notes a written language: Des vieilles chansons, des mauvaises gens, des petits trous, des petits cris de rats (this last example is taken from La peste of Camus, a modern author singularly attached to a classical and exemplary style). When the adjective is preceded by an adverb, often one of intensity, de is also used: Elle avait de tr`es jeunes enfants. When the noun is preceded by two adjectives, the higher register leads to the use of de: Imagine-toi de belles et rafraˆıchissantes jeunes filles. When the group adjective + noun is considered as a compound noun, des obtains: des petits pois, des jeunes gens, des petites annonces, des grands magasins, des petites filles, des petites cuill`eres, des petits pains, des gros mots. ` The indefinite article may have a general value: Une banane, c’est facile a ´eplucher. Repetition of the indefinite article occurs in cases where nouns are joined by et and ou: Elle s’est cass´e un bras et un doigt / une jambe et un bras; Je cherche une tasse et une soucoupe; Je ne sais pas si elle a un fils ou une fille; Tu peux l’´ecrire avec un crayon ou un stylo; Guillaume a un fr`ere ou une sœur, je ne sais pas. The indefinite article also appears before a proper name, through either scorn or emphasis, in order to invest this name with the value of a common name: On a vu un N´eron comploter contre sa m`ere Agrippine; Un Alexandre, un C´esar, un Napol´eon ont boulevers´e le monde; Ont-ils mieux m´erit´e de l’humanit´e qu’un Pasteur, qu’une Marie Curie ou qu’un Fleming ? Emphasis can also be placed on numbers with des, and here it has, unsurprisingly, the value of some: devant des quinzaines et des vingtaines de personnes. The indefinite plural des is used to evoke uncertainty of number, and here it corresponds to quelques or certains: Son p`ere gagne des cents et des mille; C ¸a m’a coˆ ut´e trente francs suisses et des poussi`eres. Un also has the numerical meaning of one, and here ellipsis does not occur: L’inflation a augment´e de un pour cent. Cases where the indefinite article is not used in French and where an English speaker might expect it are (see also Chapter 8, Section 2 for use of medical terms): 1. when a noun is in apposition: Sa m`ere, couturi`ere de son ´etat, l’a ´elev´ee toute seule; 2. after the verbs ˆetre, devenir, sembler, nommer, ´elire, croire: Son fr`ere fut g´en´eral; Marine est devenue docteure; Adeline semblait Franc¸aise mais, plus tard, j’ai compris qu’elle e´tait Canadienne; Henriette a ´et´e e´lue pr´esidente en juin, et tout de suite apr`es, elle l’a nomm´ee ministre; Je la croyais m´edecin g´en´eraliste; je n’aurais jamais cru qu’elle ´etait chirurgienne. However, when the noun is qualified by an adjective, or has a further complement, it is preceded by an indefinite article: C´eline ´etait
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3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
8.
une brillante professeure; Aude est une ing´enieure remarquable; Camille ´etait une Franc¸aise du Canada; after quel !, quelle !, quels !, quelles ! (What [a] . . . !): Quel dommage !, Quel ´ecrivain astucieux !, Quel cr´etin !, Quels ´etudiants !, Quelle imb´ecile !, Quelle athl`ete incroyable !, Quelles id´ees !; when the direct object of the verb is preceded by pas de: Je n’ai pas de dollars/pas d’euros; Nicolas n’a pas achet´e de maison. Nevertheless, it is perfectly normal to say Je n’ai pas achet´e une maison: This sentence is much more emphatic than the preceding one. If a positive idea is suggested, however, des is used: On ne fait pas d’omelettes sans casser des œufs; N’avez-vous pas des amis pour vous d´efendre ?; when the subject of the verb is preceded by jamais, and here the register is R3 (i.e., literary): Jamais vocation d’´ecrivain ne fut plus ´evidente ! in certain fixed expressions: (Bon) nombre d’´etudiants sont descendus dans la rue; C’est bon signe / Ce n’est pas bon signe / C’est mauvais signe; L’accus´ee a port´e plainte contre la police; Le fermier a mis le b´etail en lieu sˆ ur. Sometimes, and again in fixed expressions, par corresponds to the English a/an: Pauline visite le Canada une fois / deux fois par an; Le comptable ¸a coˆ ute cinquante dollars par personne / gagne sept mille euros par mois; C par tˆete de pipe (R1); Le son se propage a` une vitesse de 340 m`etres par sec` corresponds to the English a/an, and especially with onde. Sometimes a ` l’heure. The preposition a` is respect to speed: quatre-vingts kilom`etres a sometimes omitted: Quatre-vingts/octante; huitante kilom`etres heure. This corresponds to the written form 80 km/h, as in: L’avion a franchi le mur du son en atteignant 1 500 km/h. in expressions of the kind preposition + noun (see Chapter 56 on prepositions for a full treatment of this topic): J’ai lu votre livre avec int´erˆet et enthousiasme; Tu le traduis avec soin, n’est-ce pas ?; J’ai appris la nouvelle par hasard; Elle s’en est sortie par miracle; Par bonheur, elle est revenue saine et sauve; Je l’ai r´esolu sans probl`eme/difficult´e. Many of these constructions may include an adjective: Olivier a r´epar´e la crevaison avec grand soin; Je l’ai r´esolu sans grande difficult´e. On many occasions, this type of construction does require the indefinite article when the noun is modified by an adjective: Je l’ai trouv´e par hasard but: Je l’ai trouv´e par un hasard extraordinaire; Catherine a fait sa r´edaction avec un soin minutieux; Le m´edecin s’est occup´e du malade avec une patience exemplaire; in advertisements, where the indefinite article is often omitted: Centre hospitalier recherche r´eseau de coop´eration.
8 The partitive article / L’article partitif 1
Below is a passage narrating a strenuous hike through the Sinai desert. Highlighted here are the various uses of the partitive article (du, de la, de l’, des), to be distinguished from the possessive or genitive, which has the same forms. The partitive article corresponds basically to some while the possessive relates to of. A native speaker of French is not necessarily aware of this distinction. When the partitive occurs, a (1) appears after it, while the possessive is marked by a (2). Partitive articles are also highlighted in bold. Une randonn´ee nocturne dans le d´esert du Sina¨ı ` la fronti`ere des (2) Territoires Palestiniens et d’(2)Isra¨el, la Situ´ee a p´eninsule du (2) Sina¨ı a captiv´e les quelques randonneurs et randonneuses que nous formions. Cet endroit mythique offrait le spectacle fabuleux d’(2)un plateau d´esertique s’´etendant le long de la mer Rouge entre les stations baln´eaires du (2) Sina¨ı : Charm el-Cheikh et Dahab. Nous avons travers´e des (1) paysages et de (1) magnifiques ! Notre extraordinaire exp´edition dans le d´esert nous a surpris par la diversit´e du (2) site : on voyait des (1) dunes de (2) sable, ainsi que des (1) plages, notamment Charm el-Cheikh (Charm el-Cheikh = la baie du vieux en arabe) et Dahab (= or en arabe). Avant de gravir les Monts, nous avons appr´eci´e ce lieu g´eographique, r´eput´e pour son Blue Hole (Trou Bleu) caract´eris´e par son grand fond sous-marin, aux eaux cristallines, qui contient un r´eservoir gigantesque de (2) coraux, de (2) plantes et d’(2)animaux aquatiques de (2) couleurs vari´ees. Des (1) roches nous ont ´emerveill´es, tant par leurs formes que par leurs couleurs de (2) l’arc-enciel : violet, indigo, bleu, vert, jaune, orange, rouge qui se d´egageaient avec la luminosit´e. Quelle ´etrange fascination ! Notre promenade longue et ininterrompue s’est effectu´ee en pr´esence de (2) B´edouins et de (2) leurs dromadaires. Nous ne voyions que des (1) dromadaires, mais pas de (1) chevaux. On ne voyait pas de (1) mules non plus. Ce circuit de (2) ` la nuit tombante. grande randonn´ee p´edestre en montagne s’est fait a 1
The approach in this chapter is quite broad, and includes what some might consider to be indefinite articles.
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De (1) magnifiques paysages nous ont ´etonn´es lorsqu’on gravissait le Mont Sina¨ı et le Mont Sainte-Catherine. Nous avons eu bien du (1) mal ` atteindre le sommet de (2) la montagne. Le chemin caillouteux qui a nous conduit aux massifs montagneux de (2) couleur ros´ee pr´esentait une vue saisissante. ` la menApr`es huit heures de (2) marche, on nous servit du (1) th´e a the, d’(1)excellents jus de (2) fruits, de l’(1)eau fraˆıche et du (1) pain chaud pr´epar´e par les B´edouines. En nous d´esalt´erant, on contemplait ` reflets avec admiration la lumi`ere rougeˆ atre du (2) lever du (2) soleil a changeants tout en ´ecoutant un groupe de (2) touristes chanter en ` nous couper le souffle. Notre chœur de (1) splendides chants religieux a voyage fut couronn´e de (2) succ`es. Ce d´esert sacr´e serait le point de (2) rencontre des (2) trois religions : on y rencontrait des (1) juifs, des (1) chr´etiens et des (1) musulmans. Les beaut´es de (2) ce haut lieu de (2) p`elerinage nous ont ´eblouis.
8.1 Forms and use of the partitive article The partitive de combines with the articles and with adjectives to form determiners indicating a part of a whole. The English equivalent is some, some of, any, but the French partitive is used much more frequently then its English counterparts. The forms of the partitive article are: Masculine singular du, de l’, de
Feminine singular de la, de l’, de
Plural des, de
One should distinguish between the partitive des ( = some) and the possessive des ( = of the), which is a contraction of de + les. Compare Des garc¸ons ont chahut´e le prof dans la classe and La plupart des garc¸ons ont chahut´e le prof dans la classe. The partitive is regularly and necessarily used, which is not the case in English or Spanish. Interestingly enough, the partitive is also used in Italian – perhaps less often than in French, although it is still quite common. All this to say that French is quite unique in its insistence on the partitive: ateau, s’il vous plaˆıt; Nous avons pris du th´e/d’un th´e exquis; Donnez-moi de ce gˆ Donnez-nous de vos nouvelles; Des personnes malveillantes vous diront le contraire; ` des amis; On nous servit du bœuf rˆoti et de la Daniel peut emprunter de l’argent a sauce bourguignonne; Nous avons bu d’excellents jus de fruits; Donnez-lui de bons conseils. Whereas, formerly, du and de la were reduced to de when an adjective preceded the noun, as in the two cases immediately above, this is no longer so. The second example below involving a singular noun is therefore archaic. Thus, French would once have had Voil` a de vraie po´esie ! (modern version: de la vraie po´esie), but standard French now has Nous avons achet´e du bon vin and
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En voil` a, des beaux enfants !, although one could very easily write and hear: En voil` a de beaux enfants ! The article is used when the adjective follows the noun: du lait chaud, des pois secs, des filles intelligentes. The article is always omitted after partitive de before autres: J’ai d’autres amis; J’en ai d’autres. In archaic French one could read: Donnez-moi d’autre vin, s’il vous plaˆıt. The article is omitted when the adjective qualifies, or is dependent on, en replacing a partitive noun: Du vin ? Je peux vous en fournir : j’en ai d’excellents; J’en ai appris des belles sur votre compte; J’en ai vu des livres, et des beaux !; J’ai du bon fromage de ch`evre dans le frigo . . . j’en ai du frais, j’en ai du camembert / du cantal . . . When a second adjective occurs with ellipsis of the noun, it takes or omits the article according to the construction: Elle cueillit des fleurs rouges et des blanches but Dans toute ´ecole on trouve de bons ´el`eves et de mauvais, although one could very easily hear and see written Dans toute ´ecole on trouve des bons ´el`eves et des mauvais. A partitive noun governed by a prepositional de ( = of, from, by, with, etc.) may still be preceded by un, une or an adjective, but not by le, la, les: Nous avons pris un verre d’un vin exquis, de ce vin, de son vin, un verre d’excellent vin but Nous avons pris une tasse de th´e. The partitive noun is governed by prepositional de, the partitive article being entirely omitted in three cases. It could be argued that, in these cases, the de indicates less a partitive article than a possessive: 1. after many nouns denoting definite or indefinite quantity: une bouteille d’eau, un kilo de beurre, trois ans de guerre, un grand nombre / une foule de personnes; 2. after a considerable number of adjectives or past participles: une salle pleine d’invit´es, une ville priv´ee/d´epourvue de vivres, une expression vide de sens, couronn´e de succ`es, couvert de boue, rempli de sable; 3. after many verbs and verbal phrases: Il faut se munir de provisions; Les pirates ´etaient arm´es de coutelas; Il faudrait garnir d’arbres toutes ces avenues; J’avais besoin de combustible. This is also the case when de forms part of a compound preposition: Pr`es de maisons d’aspect mis´erable s’´el`eve un magnifique hˆotel. The negative adverbs ne pas and ne point come under 1 above, since they were originally nouns followed by prepositional de. The negative adverbs ne plus, de gu`ere and ne jamais have, for etymological reasons, the same construction with omission of the article: C´eline n’a pas d’argent / point d’argent; Nous n’avons plus d’essence; Il n’y a jamais de mus´ee ouvert le mardi. However, if the negative adverb merely qualifies the verb, without intruding on the partitive noun, the partitive article stands. Compare the two following sentences: Je ne vous donnerai pas de conseils and Je ne vous donnerai pas des conseils
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` suivre. Compare also the two parts of the following sentence: impossibles a ` tous, mais on peut t´emoigner de la bont´e a ` tous. On ne peut pas faire du bien a The article stands after the adverb ne . . . que, which is affirmative as regards the following noun: On ne m’a donn´e que des conseils; Je ne voyais que des ´ecureuils, mais pas d’oiseaux. The article is omitted after the adverbs of quantity beaucoup, peu, plus, moins, tant, autant, trop, assez, combien, que ! because the following de was originally prepositional: Beaucoup de paroles et peu de travail !; Il se trouvait plus de spectateurs que je ne pensais; Il y a moins d’animaux dans le bois que l’ann´ee derni`ere; Je vous donnerai autant de dollars que vous voudrez; Nous n’avons pas assez de caf´e; Tu as compt´e combien de voitures sur le parking ?; Le repas ´etait excellent mais on nous a servi trop de viande. However, beaucoup, peu and combien may be followed by des, as illustrated ` l’´eglise; Beauby these examples: Beaucoup des amies d’Adeline sont venues a coup des auditeurs ont commenc´e a` conspuer l’orateur; Si les Parisiennes avaient un peu du g´enie que j’associe aux Madril`enes . . . ; De combien des livres que tu as lus dans ton enfance te souviens-tu ? In these cases, the suggestion is: many of the friends, as opposed to many friends, a little of the genius, as opposed to little genius, or how many of the books, as opposed to how many books. The article stands after bien, which is not an adverb of quantity but merely an affective expression of a superlative idea: Bien des candidats se sont pr´esent´es; J’ai eu bien du mal a ` nager jusqu’` a la plage; Il a fallu affronter bien des dangers avant d’arriver a` notre destination. As with bien, so with la plupart, which is less an adverb and more a ` superlative ( = la plus grande partie): La plupart de mes amis sont arriv´es a temps; La plupart du temps, Francis travaille comme quatre. Note that la plupart de is followed either by a plural noun or by temps in the singular, but no other singular noun. For example, la plupart could not be followed by an uncountable noun like beurre or fruit, unless these nouns were in the plural, which is possible if one considered beurre or fruit in the context of “types of butter or fruit.” Thus, one could say, in all logic, although a certain uneasiness is felt here: la plupart des beurres or la plupart des fruits. The partitive de is used before adjectives and nouns after the neuter and indefinite pronouns ceci, cela, que, quoi, ce qui, ce que, quelqu’un, quelque chose, personne, rien: Son cas a ceci de particulier que sa r´eputation est excellente; Quoi de neuf/nouveau ?; Que sais-tu d’int´eressant ?; Dans tout ce qui m’arrive d’heureux ou de triste, je pense a ` ma m`ere; Ce que je connais d’int´eressant, je le garde pour moi; Je me suis tir´e d’affaire avec ce que je connais de mandarin; Il y a quelqu’un de bless´e ?; J’ai appris quelque chose de vraiment important. Personal pronouns are not preceded by de but by d’entre: Les juges n’´etaient ` l’innocence de l’accus´e; Les pas d’accord. Plusieurs d’entre eux croyaient a ` chahuter. ´etudiants sont entr´es en coup de vent. Trois d’entre eux ont commenc´e a But one may say either l’un d’eux or l’un d’entre eux.
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The noun is never partitive when determined by numeral or indefinite adjectives: quatre-vingts euros; J’ai parl´e avec plusieurs personnes; Attends quelques minutes. Joliment, a common colloquial expression, but not accepted by all, is ` normally followed by the full partitive form: J’ai eu joliment du mal a r´esoudre la question. The partitive article is used as a complement which serves to characterize something or someone: une table de marbre (also en here), un po`ete de g´enie, un adverbe de lieu, une mesure de longueur. This is similar to the use of the ` soupe, boˆıte a ` bijoux, boˆıte a ` ` which is not a partitive: Assiette a preposition a ` bijoux/disques/CDs/DVDs, corbeille lettres (more usually: boˆıte aux lettres), coffret a ` pain/papier, panier a ` salade, sac a ` ouvrage. a
8.2 Medical terminology Here we bring together in common medical terminology the often confusing uses of the French definite, indefinite and partitive article where there is rarely correspondence in English and where, all too frequently, the articles are not used at all. Dictionaries do not help much here. 8.2.1 Partitive article Examples: Elle a de l’asme / du diab`ete / de l’ecz´ema / de la temp´erature / de l’urticaire (rash). Elle a/fait de l’ost´eoporose. Elle a/fait du rhumatisme. J’ai de la fi`evre (a temperature). Elle a/fait de la tension (high blood pressure). Also: Elle a des coups de soleil / un coup de soleil (sunburn) / des crampes / une crampe. 8.2.2 Definite article Examples: Il a l’appendicite / le cancer (also: un cancer) / le chol´era / la diarrh´ee / la dipht´erie / la dysenterie / la fi`evre (temperature) / la gangr`ene / la goutte / la grippe / la l`epre / la leuc´emie / la maladie d’Alzheimer / la maladie de Parkinson / la maladie du sommeil / la maladie de la vache folle / la maladie du l´egionnaire / la migraine (also une migraine) / la mononucl´eose (glandular fever: also une mononucl´eose) / les oreillons (mumps) / le palu (or paludisme, but le palu is much more common than the full term) / le pied d’athl`ete / la phl´ebite / la pneumoconiose (pneumoconiosis = miners’ lung disease) / la rage (rabies) / la rougeole (measles) / le sida (AIDS) / la salmonelle / la scarlatine / la syphilis / le t´etanos / le torticolis (stiff neck; also un torticolis) / la tuberculose / la varicelle (chicken pox) / la petite v´erole (small pox). La maladie is also used figuratively: Elle a la maladie du rangement (She’s obsessively tidy). During the 1970s, Michel Sardou sang a most popular song: “Elle court, elle court, la maladie d’amour [love sickness] . . . ” La manie occurs in a similar context: Il a la manie de la propret´e / de l’ordre / de la pers´ecution. Note also: avoir le mal du pays (homesickness) / le mal des transports (travel sickness) / le mal de mer. In a literary context, and during the Romantic period: Musset avait le mal du si`ecle (world weariness), the Weltschmerz we find in Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther.
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8.2.3 Indefinite article Examples: Elle a une angine (sore throat) / une bronchite / une conjonctivite / une h´epatite / une hernie / une indigestion / une insolation (sunstroke) / une m´eningite / une mycose (rash and could refer to athlete’s foot) / une otite (earache) / une pneumonie / un rhume (Elle est enrhum´ee is more common) / une tendinite (tendinitis but often tennis elbow) / un zona (shingles). Elle fait une sinusite. Elle a fait une d´eprime (R1 = She was depressed) is much less strong than Elle a fait une d´epression. 8.2.4 General notes The term cancer is often avoided by journalists these days, and is replaced by a euphemism: Elle est d´ec´ed´ee des suites d’une longue maladie. Sida could also be replaced by une longue maladie, but cancer is the most common one here. Elle n’a pas le moral = She’s a bit depressed. For amygdales (tonsils), one usually says: Elle a les amygdales (She has tonsilitis). In some cases, adjectives come much more easily: Elle est anorexique/ autiste/boulimique/´epileptique/rachitique ( < anorexie/autisme/boulimie/´epilepsie/ rachitisme). It goes without saying that these lists only offer general guidance. See also Chapter 7 for other features where there is no correspondence with English.
9 Gender / Le genre
Exceptionally, given the length of this chapter, there are two passages of French illustrating the problems of gender in French. The first focuses on Thebes, an illustrious city in ancient Egypt, while the second describes the Saharan city of Gharda¨ıa. Thebes, in Upper Egypt, is the center of an important tourist industry, given the splendor of an ancient and fascinating culture. The visit to Thebes involves Luxor and Karnac. These three ancient cities with their monuments lie along the Nile. Note that the city of Th`ebes is feminine while Le Caire, Louxor and Karnac are masculine, a general difficulty highlighted in the body of this chapter. Note also that, together with some other towns and cities in the world, Caire is preceded by Le. Le Nil indicates that rivers are generally, but not always, masculine. There are a great number of nouns in this passage, the gender of which could be deceiving for an English speaker: cr´epuscule, temple, cadre, mus´ee, fleuve, mythe, caract`ere, hi´eroglyphe, ob´elisque, pylˆone, vestige and apog´ee, among other nouns, are masculine, and n´ecropole, ´enigme and ruines are feminine. Just a few translations are given. Sur les traces de Th`ebes ´ gypte, la chaleur torride du mois de juillet nous obligeait a ` faire En E ` la tomb´ nos visites touristiques et culturelles a ee de la nuit ou au cr´epuscule du matin. Apr`es un long voyage nocturne depuis Le Caire, ` Louxor1 o` nous arrivˆ ames a u nous ´etions attendus en grande pompe. ` l’hˆ Nous descendˆımes a otel central pour nous reposer la journ´ee avant de connaˆıtre la grandeur, la puret´e et la gloire immortelle des temples ´egyptiens, des palais imposants des anciens pharaons de Louxor et de ee des Rois Karnac2 ainsi que des n´ecropoles monumentales de la Vall´ et de la Vall´ee des Reines. Le grand ´eclat et la lumi`ere particuli`ere qui jaillissent de ces hauts lieux de p`elerinage individuel ou en groupe sont envoˆ utants. Le cadre ` ciel naturel est absolument f´eerique, il s’agit d’un v´ eritable mus´ ee a ouvert ! De l’autre cˆ ot´e de la rive, le Nil s’´ecoule tranquillement au 1 2
Louxor may also be written Louqsor, and means palace in Arabic. Karnac may also be written Karnak or Carnac, and means fortified village in Arabic.
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rythme des ´etroites felouques [feluccas: boats typically used on the Nile]. L’un des plus longs fleuves du monde se singularise par sa verte vall´ee en plein milieu du d´esert. Quelle magnificence et quel caract` ere myst´erieux et sacr´e de ce site merveilleux ! Les dieux tout-puissants, les d´eesses ´egyptiennes, les h´eros traditionnels, les mythes fabuleux, les fameuses l´egendes de la mythologie ´egyptienne sont omnipr´esents. Une grande ´enigme entoure Louxor. A l’entr´ee du temple, un ob´elisque grav´e de hi´eroglyphes anciens trˆ one avec le grandiose pylˆ one de Rams`es II ainsi que deux statues colossales assises au milieu des ´ gypte et ses ruines ´eternelles. Un calme olympien r`egne sur la Haute-E ` chaque instant, la splendeur de ces nombreux ´edifices somptueux. A vestiges m’´emerveille. La Th`ebes antique m’a captiv´ee par la beaut´ e fascinante de son environnement qui t´emoigne avec force de l’apog´ ee [highest point] lumineux d’une civilisation mill´enaire [thousands of years old].
Below is a passage describing the exotic perfumes, colors and activities of Gharda¨ıa, an Algerian city deep in the Sahara desert where many people still either speak or understand French. Algeria remains very much a francophone country. The gender of many nouns is indicated by definite and indefinite articles and adjectives. Adjectives often, but by no means always, can be a clue to the gender of nouns. Note that oasis and coriandre are feminine, as is Saint-Sylvestre, like most festivals in French. Gingembre, d´elice and r´egime on the other hand are masculine. Yet d´elice in the plural is feminine, as indicated below. Not all the genders are highlighted in bold, for example la d´ecouverte, la richesse and la g´en´erosit´e. Translations of some individual words or expressions are provided. La perle des oasis ` Gharda¨ıa, une grande et belle Notre merveilleuse ´equip´ee [adventure] a oasis du M’zab, a ´et´e marqu´ee par la c´el´ ebration de la Saint-Sylvestre [New Year’s Eve]. La d´ecouverte de la vie b´ edouine fut un v´eritable enchantement. Passant par les rues ´etroites qui d´ebouchent sur la place du march´e, je suis attir´ee, comme un aimant [magnet], par les odeurs all´echantes [enticing] de toutes sortes d’´epices : l’anis ´etoil´ e, le cumin, le clou de girofle, la cannelle, le gingembre, la coriandre, la menthe et bien d’autres substances aromatiques et enivrantes. Quel d´elice ! A ces odeurs douces et suaves, des ´ etalages [stalls] bien approvisionn´ es en fruits et l´egumes s’offrent a ` notre regard. Ce march´e est une curiosit´e inlassable. Je n’ai pas le souvenir d’avoir rencontr´e une habitante, mˆeme voil´ee, de Gharda¨ıa. Une touriste de passage me pr´ecise que depuis un mois, j’´etais la premi`ere femme qu’elle rencontrait sur cette place o` u la pr´esence masculine est tr`es forte. La plupart du temps, le
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burnous, le pantalon bouffant [baggy] et la calotte [skull cap] blanche caract´erisent l’habillement traditionnel du Mozabite. Notre journ´ ee ` la pri`ere du haut du minaret duquel le fut ponctu´ee par un appel a muezzin invite les fervents fid`eles cinq fois par jour. Fin d´ecembre, nous avions b´en´efici´e d’un climat exceptionnellement doux, sous d’autres cieux cl´ements. Dans le d´esert, les palmeraies [groves of palm trees] ´etaient charg´ees des derniers r´ egimes [bunches] de dattes gorg´ees de soleil. Gharda¨ıa a exerc´e sur moi une myst´ erieuse fascination. Cette r´egion du sud alg´erien est l´egendaire. La perle des oasis garde dans son ´ecrin [jewel box] le tr´ esor d’une culture ancestrale avec la richesse de son patrimoine historique, la beaut´ e presque irr´eelle de ses caravanes de chameaux et de chamelles et la g´en´erosit´e de son peuple.
9.1 A note on the concept of gender That, in French, or in most European languages (but not in Basque, Finnish, Hungarian or Turkish), the notion of gender for nouns provides the first obstacle for an English-speaking student doubtless comes as no surprise. After all, for such a speaker, the concept of gender assigned to inanimate objects strikes one as extraordinary, and lacks all logic and convincing definition. Gender applied to inanimate objects hardly exists in English. One may quote she for a ship, but this is the limit. However, the idea of gender in French is a presence to be reckoned with. One of the neoLatin languages, and therefore deriving from Latin, and ultimately from Greek, French inherits the concept of gender, just like Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. One may understand masculine and feminine nouns in the context of humans (male and female) and some animals (again male and female). But that a table in French should be feminine ( = la table), or that tavola (la) in Italian and mesa (la) in Spanish should also be feminine, while couteau (le) in French, coltello (il) in Italian and cuchillo (el) in Spanish are masculine defies rational explanation. Indeed, linguists agree that no rules may be established to justify this application of gender to nouns, save for those pointing to persons and some animals. Furthermore, in many European languages, from Greek and Latin through to Czech, German, Polish, Russian and the Scandinavian languages, for example, one has to confront a further gender applied to nouns: neuter. In Romance languages, fortunately, this is not the case, although in Spanish, there exists the vigorous use of adjectives with a neuter value (lo). The imagination is stretched beyond all reasonable bounds in Old Church Russian where a fourth gender occurs with a mixture of plural masculine and feminine, the equivalent of they. However, for our purposes, we may safely concentrate on French masculine and feminine nouns, which have
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repercussions throughout the French sentence since they require agreement of adjectives and past participles. The gender of numerous French nouns has never been stable over the centuries, which explains serious hesitation felt, at one time or another, by practically all French speakers. The same comment applies to the other Romance languages. This variability is partly due to the diverse origins of words, changes based on analogy with other words in the same language, and the constant requirements of adapting to new circumstances, as with the accession of females to what was once an exclusive male precinct. Three simple examples of the variability of genders over the centuries are the French masculine noun miel which is also masculine in Italian (il miele) but feminine in Spanish (la miel); fleur is feminine in French and Spanish (la flor) but masculine in Italian (il fiore); op´era is masculine in French but ´opera is feminine in Spanish and opera is also feminine in Italian. Little wonder there is confusion here since opus/operis is neuter in Latin. In short, the study of gender is a testing minefield, and requires meticulous attention, although the restrictions of room do not allow the comprehensive treatment that the monumental Bon usage of Grevisse and Goosse devotes to it. In the latest edition of the said volume (2008), seventy-four pages cover the endless possibilities of gender. Finally, in this short introduction, the common expression “discuter sur le sexe des anges” says it all. Such a discussion points to an interminable and doubtless fruitless wrangling over the sex, and therefore gender, of angels, and sex and gender are not the same thing. Whether angels can be exclusively male or female, and whether their gender in French is masculine or feminine are unresolved issues. Of course, only the latter concerns us here. Consensus of opinion suggests that ange is only masculine, witness the entry in the admirable Canadian MULTI dictionnaire of de Villers, which states unequivocally that “ange est toujours masculin” (our emphasis). A similar opinion is found in the Belgians Hanse and Blampain’s excellent Nouveau dictionnaire des difficult´es du franc¸ais moderne (2005). Yet this trenchant assertion flies in the face of evidence adduced by Le bon usage, which quotes such prestigious authors as Alfred de Vigny, Gustave Flaubert, G´erard de ´mile Zola, who also assign a feminine Nerval, Antoine de Saint-Exup´ery, E gender to the word ange. The simple fact is that French, as other Romance languages, finds itself inextricably involved in gender issues that remain adamantly unclear by virtue of the relationship of the nature of gender and the infinitely variable possibilities of nouns. To conclude the matter of ange, nearly all contemporary French speakers view it as a masculine noun. For further confusion on the sex of possible supernatural beings, d´emon/d´emone is merely another illustration of this labyrinth, although the feminine form is little used these days. This said, Chateaubriand uses the feminine form in his M´emoires d’outre-tombe (near the beginning of Chapter 12, Book 3).
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9.2 Patterns of gender Following on from the comments above, gender constitutes a basic ingredient of French grammar. It is therefore important to assign the correct gender to a particular noun. As with the other languages referred to above, rules for learning the gender of nouns would be pointless, and the only practical method is to use the definite (le/la) or indefinite article (un/une) before each noun when it is first encountered and try to remember it. At the same time, certain patterns emerge. The simplest one is the gender applied to many males and females: le p`ere / la m`ere, un oncle / une tante, le fr`ere / la sœur, le fils / la fille, un homme / une femme, le garc¸on / la fille. Beyond this most straightforward of patterns we concentrate on patterns that are not too obvious, bearing in mind that there are numerous exceptions, among which a feminine noun like victime applies not just to females but also to males. Victime is not preceded by le/un when referring to a male. Conversely, a female witness can only be masculine: le t´emoin, and as a blue stocking, she has to be masculine, despite the irony here: un bas bleu. Similarly, b´eb´e can only be masculine: Il va bien applies to male and female babies alike, although among small children one could very easily hear une b´eb´e. In the world of infancy, would a female newborn be une fille nouveau n´ee, une fille nouvelle n´ee or une fille nouveau n´e? The Belgian dictionary of Hanse and Blampain supports the use of the first of these three. Almost certainly none of these would be used in metropolitan France, and une petite fille would replace them. Below is a rough, but very helpful, guide which offers a fair, but far from comprehensive, list. This presents the patterns (e.g. –et masculine / –ette feminine: jouet/brouette; –s masculine / –sse feminine: bras/brasse) that the gender follows. These patterns do have a true function, so it is worthwhile studying them. 9.2.1 Simple nouns: masculine Names of days of the week: le dimanche, lundi, mardi, samedi (see Chapter 62 for the full list); Names of months: janvier, f´evrier, mars, novembre, d´ecembre (see Chapter 62 for the full list); Names of seasons: hiver, printemps, ´et´e, automne; Names of languages: arabe, franc¸ais, anglais am´ericain/britannique, guarani, h´ebreu, n´ ahuatl (of the Aztecs), russe, chinois, serbo-croate, tch`eque; Names of trees: acajou, balsamier, baobab, bouleau, buis, cactus, c`edre, chˆene, coudrier/noisetier (hazel tree), cypr`es, ´erable, eucalyptus, frˆene, hˆetre, houx, if (as in Chˆ ateau d’If, a small island in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Marseilles), lentisque, lilas, m´el`eze, mimosa, n´eflier, orme, palissandre, palmier, peuplier, pin, pistachier, platane (looks feminine but isn’t), sapin, saule (pleureur), s´equoia, tamarinier, teck, tilleul, tremble (aspen). Aub´epine, however, is feminine (if it is a tree). This masculine list includes
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fruit trees (arbres fruitiers): abricotier, amandier, bananier, caroubier (carob tree), cerisier, chˆ ataignier, citronnier, cocotier, dattier, ficus (fig tree), figuier, gen´evrier (juniper), goyavier (guava tree), grenadier (pomegranate tree), manguier (mangrove tree), marronnier, noisetier, noyer, olivier, oranger, pamplemoussier (not very common), poirier, pommier. Most of the fruits of these trees are feminine (see below), as are the groves or orchards of distinctive trees (with endings –aie: see in the feminine-gender section below); Names of metals: acier, argent, bronze, cuivre, or, plomb, soufre, zinc; Names of human agents ending in –eur, –ien: aiguilleur, censeur, chirurgien, couvreur (roofer, a person who repairs roofs; Gervaise’s husband Coupeau was a couvreur in Zola’s L’assommoir), facteur, vainqueur, sauveteur, successeur, ´electricien, informaticien, m´ecanicien, musicien, pharmacien; Names of volcanoes: Etna, Popocatepetl, le V´esuve; Names of musical notes: do, r´e, mi, fa, sol, la, si; References of paintings: un Dali/David/Diego Rivera/Goya/Picasso/Vel´ azquez; Names of oceans: l’Atlantique, le Pacifique, l’oc´ean Indien; Nouns ending in –ac: bric-` a-brac, clic-clac, frac, fric-frac (break-in, as in a robbery), lac, ric-rac, tic-tac, trac; Nouns ending in –acle: c´enacle (literary/philosophical circle = R3), obstacle; ˆcle is feminine; but d´eba Nouns ending in –ail: ail, d´etail, ´eventail, soupirail, s´erail; Nouns ending in –ard: boulevard, brassard (a soccer captain wears one), cafard (cockroach), foulard, loubard (hooligan), lard, p´etard; Nouns ending in –as: amas, bras, coutelas, fatras, galetas, matelas, tas; Nouns ending in –at: assassinat, forc¸at (convict), malfrat (thug), sc´el´erat (villain = R3), secr´etariat; Nouns ending in –eau: anneau, bandeau, bordereau (form, slip, note: used as evidence in the spurious conviction of Dreyfus in the notorious eponymous affair), carreau, chapeau, ciseau, fourneau, gˆ ateau, mat´eriau, oripeau (faded finery = R3), panneau, poteau, pruneau, radeau, r´eseau, rideau, sceau, seau; but eau and peau are feminine; Nouns ending in –`ege: coll`ege, cort`ege, floril`ege (anthology of verse or any written pieces), man`ege, sacril`ege; Nouns ending in –eil: soleil, sommeil; Nouns ending in –`eme: chrysanth`eme (see Claude Monet’s Le vase de chrysanth`emes), cr`eme, th`eme; Nouns ending in –er: fer, goˆ uter; but cuiller and mer are feminine; Nouns ending in –et: boulet, budget, cachet, cadet, filet, fouet, galet, gilet, goulet, lacet, muret, piquet, poulet, sachet, sobriquet, tiret, tourniquet; Nouns ending in –ice: armistice, b´en´efice, calice, caprice (as in Goya’s paintings Les caprices), cilice (hair shirt), sacrifice; but immondices (usually plural), justice, malice and police are feminine; for usage with d´elice(s), see Section 9.3.3 below;
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Nouns ending in –ier: calendrier, courrier, fermier, madrier, palier, papier, plombier, policier, serrurier, soulier; Nouns ending in –in: poulain, requin; but fin and main are feminine; Nouns ending in –isme: bouddhisme, capitalisme, christianisme, communisme, cubisme, dada¨ısme, darwinisme, gaullisme, g´eocentrisme, h´eliocentrisme, hindouisme, positivisme, prisme, romantisme, socialisme (and numerous other ideologies); Nouns ending in –ment: commencement, d´ebarquement (unloading, landing, as in le D´ebarquement en Normandie en juin 1944), ´emolument, engagement, ` Ornans), logement, moment, monenterrement (as in Courbet’s Enterrement a ument, mouvement, paiement, serment (as in David’s Le serment des Horaces); but: jument is feminine; Nouns ending in –o: num´ero, z´ero; but: dynamo is feminine; Nouns ending in –oir: arrosoir, boudoir, butoir, crachoir (spittoon), couloir, loir (doormouse; dormir comme un loir), lavoir, manoir, miroir, pouvoir, sarcloir (hoe), sautoir, savoir, s´echoir, terroir (as in le goˆ ut du terroir), tiroir; Nouns ending in –ou: amadou, clou, genou, hibou, manitou (as in le grand manitou = the boss); Nouns ending in –our: amour (but see Section 9.3.3), four, tambour; but: cour and tour (= tower) are feminine; Nouns with two or more syllables ending in –age: adage, Ar´eopage,3 barrage (dam, play-off in sport allowing a second chance to qualify), blocage (locking, blocking, as of a road), bocage (hedge farmland, as in le bocage vend´een or le bocage normand – known for the ferocious fighting during the Normandy invasion in June 1944 = le D´ebarquement), brouillage, carrelage (floor tiling), c´epage (grape variety), chauffage (central), collage, cordage, coupage, courage, covoiturage (car sharing), d´ecoupage, ´egrenage, ´elagage, ´elevage, ´etage, garage, (chemin de) halage (tow path), mage, massage, m´enage, aturage, p´eage nuage, ombrage, orage, outrage, pacage, page, parrainage, pˆ (toll), pelage, plumage, pr´esage, sillage, sondage (as in le sondage des ´electeurs), virage (as in prendre un virage); but image is feminine (as in sage comme une ´pinal, the simplistic view of French image = good as gold, and image d’E country life). 9.2.2 Simple nouns: feminine In many of the cases below, it is evident that the final –e is a sign of the feminine gender, but care should still be taken. As a matter of interest, the French feminine –e corresponds largely to the Spanish and Italian a (French: fermier > fermi`ere; cadet > cadette; Spanish: chico > chica; Italian: ragazzo > 3
Ar´eopage (Areopagus) calls for some comment. The upper case refers to the supreme court in ancient Athens. According to Acts 17: 19–22, Paul addressed this tribunal in his commitment to converting the world: “Alors, ils [les Ath´eniens] le prirent, et le ` l’Ar´eopage, en disant . . .” In the lower case, it refers to any august body, men`erent a such as the Acad´emie franc¸aise, or the Acad´emie des sciences.
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ragazza), where it may be argued that French has developed beyond Spanish and Italian, deriving as they all do from Latin. Names of sciences: biologie, chimie, g´eologie, grammaire, informatique, math´ematiques, (astro)physique, (nano) technologie; but: droit is masculine; Names of seas: la mer Baltique, la (mer) M´editerran´ee, la mer Morte/Rouge; Names of fruits: amande, banane, caroube (carob, which gives food for horses), cerise, chˆ ataigne, datte, figue, goyave, grenade, noisette, noix de coco, orange, pamplemousse, pomme, prune; but abricot, citron, geni`evre (could not look more feminine), gland and marron are masculine. There is some uncertainty over pamplemousse, which is used increasingly in the masculine form. Nouns ending in –ade: baignade (as in Seurat’s Une baignade, Asni`eres), bourgade, embrassade, foucade (escapade), grillade, limonade, noyade, parade, rade, salade; Nouns ending in –aie: baie, craie, haie, plaie, raie, taie (pillowcase). This list includes trees as grouped together (grove, orchard): bananeraie, ceriseraie, chˆ ataigneraie, coudraie (grove of hazel trees), futaie (grove, wood), hˆetraie, noyeraie, oliveraie, orangeraie, peupleraie, pommeraie; although feminine, pin`ede does not fit into this category; Nouns ending in –aille: broussaille(s), canaille, ´ecaille (scale, as of fish, and used metaphorically in Les ´ecailles me sont tomb´ees des yeux), graille (R1 = chow/grub), grisaille (dull weather), maille, m´edaille, muraille (as in la Grande muraille de Chine), ouaille(s) (flock of religious faithful, especially plural), paille, taille; but: braille is masculine, coming from the name Louis Braille; Nouns ending in –aine: bedaine (paunch), graine, haine, laine, marraine, migraine, plaine; Nouns ending in –aise: aise, baise (R∗ , vulgar = a fuck, use with great care), braise, fadaise, falaise, foutaise∗ (use with care, as in C’est de la foutaise = It’s crap), fraise, glaise; but: malaise is masculine; Nouns ending in –aison: fenaison, raison, saison, pendaison (hanging of a criminal); Nouns ending in –aisse: baisse, bouillabaisse (for the gourmets = fish soup), caisse, graisse, laisse; Nouns ending in –ame: dame, lame, rame; but blˆ ame and amalgame are masculine; Nouns ending in –ance/–anse: aisance, arrogance, assistance, bouffetance (R1 = grub), lance, manigance, outrance (exaggeration), reconnaissance, souffrance, anse, danse, transe; Nouns ending in –´ee: bouch´ee (mouthful of food), chauss´ee, cord´ee (you would need this if you were mountain climbing), corv´ee, couv´ee, ´echapp´ee (breakaway, as in cycle race), ´equip´ee (prank), fess´ee, gorg´ee, (mouthful
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of drink), journ´ee, maisonn´ee, mˆel´ee, matin´ee, mont´ee, soir´ee4 but: apog´ee, mus´ee, scarab´ee and troph´ee are masculine; Nouns ending in –ence/–ense: cadence, carence, licence, magnificence, munificence (R3), d´efense, d´epense; but: silence is masculine (as in Bergman’s Le silence); Nouns ending in –elle: aquarelle, gamelle (dixie, billy can for soldiers or ` la marelle), ombrelle, camping), mamelle, marelle (hopscotch, as in jouer a passerelle, sauterelle; Nouns ending in –esse: all´egresse, bassesse, caresse, messe (mass), mollesse, petitesse, politesse, sagesse, souplesse; Names of feminine agents ending in –esse: comtesse, hˆotesse, (contre)maˆıtresse; Names ending in –euse/–trice: baigneuse (as in Renoir’s La baigneuse), flasheuse (R1, radar speed apparatus, not a female flasher = une exhibitionniste) mitrailleuse, ouvreuse, accompagnatrice, actrice, enquˆetrice, instructrice, monitrice; Nouns ending in –ette: aigrette, allumette, baguette, bandelette, bavette, boulette, buvette, cachette, can(n)ette, carpette, casquette, cordelette, corvette, courbette, courgette (zucchini), crevette, cuvette, dette, escarpolette, espagnolette, femmelette, galette (as in Renoir’s Moulin de la Galette in the Louvre), lunette(s), (il y a belle) lurette (a good time ago), mallette, manette, mitraillette, moquette, musette, navette, pirouette, poussette, roulette, sellette, sup´erette, toilette(s), vachette, vedette; but: squelette is masculine, however feminine it looks; Abstract nouns ending in –eur: ampleur, ardeur, grandeur, hauteur, pudeur; but: honneur, labeur and malheur are masculine; ˆnerie, astronomie, bact´erie (bacterium), batNouns ending in –ie: anarchie, a terie, boiserie, bonhomie, braderie, broderie, calvitie, carie, ´energie, furie, galerie, gastronomie, imprimerie, industrie, minuterie, momie, ontologie, panoplie, partie, philosophie, photographie, psychologie, sanie (R3 = infected wound: Camus uses this word frequently in La peste), sournoiserie, strat´egie, supercherie (hoax), symphonie (as in Beethoven’s La symphonie pastorale), th´eorie (not just theory but also in R3 = procession of people), tromperie, but: g´enie, incendie and parapluie are masculine. Many types of stores/shops have the –ie ending: animalerie (neologism : store dealing in animals, their food, etc.), boucherie, boulangerie, brasserie, charcuterie, ´epicerie, hˆotellerie, librairie, mercerie, pˆ atisserie, plomberie; Nouns ending in –i`ere: bandouli`ere ( = shoulder strap as worn by Pancho Villa, for example), banni`ere, barri`ere (as in La grande barri`ere off the Australian coast), brassi`ere, carri`ere, chevali`ere (signet ring), couturi`ere, 4
Journ´ee, matin´ee and soir´ee refer to the length of the day: dans la journ´ee/matin´ee/ soir´ee, toute la journ´ee/matin´ee/soir´ee.
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croisi`ere, fermi`ere, fili`ere, fronti`ere, gibeci`ere (game bag), lani`ere, mati`ere, montgolfi`ere (hot-air balloon from the French Montgolfier brothers in the late eighteenth century), paupi`ere, poudri`ere (powder keg), pri`ere, rapi`ere (rapier), rati`ere, sali`ere, sourici`ere, tabati`ere (snuffbox), tani`ere (lair), visi`ere; but cimeti`ere is masculine; Nouns ending in –ille: bille, chenille (caterpillar), famille, grille, trille, vrille (tendril, spiral); Nouns ending in –ine: aspirine, colline, ´echine, ´epine, farine, latrine(s), mandoline, margarine, marine, m´edecine, mine, mousseline, narine, ondine (water nymph), p´enicilline, praline, quinine, saline(s), statine, tartine, terrine, urine, usine; Nouns ending in –ise: crise, entreprise, expertise, mainmise, m´eprise, mise, prise, reprise; Nouns ending in –oire: armoire, bouilloire, passoire; but: pourboire is masculine; Nouns ending in –ouille: andouille, bouille (R1 = face, mug), brouille, couilles (R1 = balls of male), fouille, grenouille, houille, magouille, nouille (also used metaphorically in C’est un plat de nouilles = He’s a weakling), patrouille, ratatouille (as in the film Ratatouille, involving a play on words with rat), rouille, trouille (fear), vadrouille (stroll, wandering about, as in the box-office film sensation La grande vadrouille, G´erard Oury, 1966); Nouns ending in –sion/–tion: compr´ehension, pension, tension, aspiration, attention, portion (innumerable ones here); but bastion is masculine; Nouns ending in –t´e: activit´e, acuit´e, affabilit´e, amabilit´e, anxi´et´e, beaut´e, bont´e, brutalit´e, charit´e, chert´e, cit´e, clart´e, commodit´e, duret´e, fatalit´e, fermet´e, hospitalit´e, humidit´e, inanit´e, intensit´e, mentalit´e, morosit´e, nettet´e, obscurit´e, parit´e, probit´e, rapidit´e, raret´e, rentabilit´e, salet´e, s´ecurit´e, sensibilit´e, sommit´e, sˆ uret´e, vanit´e, vari´et´e, volont´e, volupt´e; but: comit´e, comt´e, cˆot´e and ´et´e are masculine; Nouns ending in –ti´e: amiti´e, moiti´e, piti´e; Nouns ending in –tude: altitude, attitude, certitude, gratitude, habitude, h´eb´etude, incertitude, inqui´etude, lassitude, latitude, longitude, mansu´etude, n´egritude, platitude, promptitude, qui´etude, rectitude, servitude, solitude, turpitude; Nouns ending in –ue: charrue, grue, morue, mue (molting/casting off of animal); Nouns ending in –ure: armature, bigarrure (multicolored pattern), blessure, carrure, ceinture, chaussure, clˆoture, enluminure (illumination, colored highlighting of letters = R3), fermeture, fourrure, garniture, injure, lavure, levure, marbrure (blotchiness, mottling), masure, mesure, meurtrissure, morsure, nourriture, ordure, ouverture, peinture, posture, pourriture, pr´efecture, serrure, salissure (dirty mark), souillure (stain, dirty mark), structure, temp´erature, tenture, tournure (turn, i.e., of events; tournure de phrase = set phrase), verdure, voiture, and mˆ ure; but mercure, murmure and parjure are masculine;
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Monosyllabic nouns ending in –age: cage, nage, page, plage, rage (anger/rabies); but: gage is masculine. See also masculine page in Section 9.2.1 above. 9.2.3 Compound nouns Compound nouns (unhyphenated and hyphenated, or even as separate words – it is not always clear when or why hyphens occur) are sprouting up in French like mushrooms, just as they are in Spanish and Italian, although to a lesser extent in Italian. In German, of course, the phenomenon has been a traditional and standard aspect of the language. Many of these compound nouns do not appear in recent dictionaries, so difficult is it to keep pace with them. The following analytical presentation of compound nouns is followed by a fuller, but by no means comprehensive, list: Type of compound noun + noun
adjective + noun or noun + adjective
Gender assigned according to gender of headword (i.e., both words are of equal importance, e.g., un spectateur-auditeur, or, if one noun qualifies the other, the noun (usually the first) which is qualified, e.g., un mot-cl´e, une id´eechoc) assigned according to gender of noun
verb + noun
always masculine
invariable word + noun
assigned according to gender of noun, but always masculine if noun is plural
Examples Masculine chou-fleur hommegrenouille timbre-poste
coffre-fort rond-point
chauffe-eau pare-brise porte-avions portefeuille prot`ege-tibia avant-bras contrepoids haut-parleur deux-pi`eces mille-pattes
Feminine loi-programme ville-fantˆome porte-fenˆetre
basse-cour chauve-souris exceptions: rouge-gorge and rouge-queue (both masculine)
arri`ere-pens´ee contre-partie
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Type of compound verb + verb
Gender always masculine
phrase
always masculine
Examples Masculine laissezpasser laissez-faire savoir-vivre savoir-ˆetre savoir-faire sauve-quipeut va-et-vient
Feminine
Following on from above, with further examples, a compound noun of two masculine nouns is obviously masculine: aller-retour, appartement-t´emoin (show apartment), argument choc, attentat/avion-suicide, bateau-pilote, budget ˆtre, effet boomerang, ensemble jogging (jogging livres/loisirs, caf´e-concert, caf´e-th´ea outfit), facteur-rh´esus, film culte, forfait entretien (inclusive maintenance package, for an automobile for instance), gouvernement fantoche, jumbo-ch`eque, mot pi`ege, frein moteur (on a steep incline), papier cadeau (gift wrapping paper), papier aluminium, (Le) Vaisseau fantˆome (The Flying Dutchman, by Wagner), portrait-robot (as created by the police), prˆet relais (bridging loan), prix choc (huge reduction), satellite-espion, service maximum, stylo-feutre, temps record, ticket restaurant, top secret, voyage ´eclair. Fleuve is regularly used to denote an ongoing, continuous saga: discours/proc`es/roman fleuve. A compound noun of two feminine nouns is obviously feminine: ampoule basse consommation, ann´ee-disco/fac/lumi`ere, auto-´ecole, cassette-vid´eo, cellule-m`ere, date-limite, grandeur nature (life-size), maison-m`ere, pochette-surprise, porte-fenˆetre, reine-m`ere, serviette-´eponge (terry towel), table-gigognes (nest of tables), voiture occasion. The gender of a compound noun with two different genders is determined by the gender of the first noun: Masculine: album-photo, avion/bateau poubelle (unreliable boat/airplane), bateau-´ecole, bateau-mouche, b´eb´e-´eprouvette (test-tube baby), budget auto/vacances, camion-citerne, centre-ville, code-barres, coin cuisine, cong´e maladie (sick leave), cˆot´e ´education/temp´erature ( = with respect to . . . ), espace ´tat-providence (welfare state), facattente (waiting area, as in a bank), E teur chance/surprise, jeu vid´eo, mot-cl´e, mot-valise (portmanteau word), niveau ´education/temp´erature ( = with respect to . . . ), ordinateur tablette (computer pad), pack s´ecurit´e (safety pack for a car, for instance), papier monnaie, plateau t´el´e (habit of eating a meal while watching television), pointfid´elit´e (reward point), programme t´el´e, repas-´etape (restaurant where you would stop for lunch, e.g. on a highway), rˆole-clef, sc´enario-catastrophe, service apr`es-vente, spot radio (radio commercial), sport automobile, stylo-bille,
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taxi-brousse (taxi servicing bush country), texte-cadre, timbre-poste, village´etape (village where travelers stop overnight), village repas (as repas-´etape), vide-grenier (car boot sale); Feminine: brasse-papillon, date-butoir (closing date), ferme mod`ele, guerre/visite´eclair, image choc, loi-cadre (framework of a law), machine-outil, maisont´emoin (show house), nation satellite/arc-en-ciel (rainbow nation, e.g. South Africa), op´eration-commando, question pi`ege, recette miracle, r´eponsemod`ele, somme record, station-service, taxe-carbone, usine pilote, ville dortoir/ champignon/fantˆome/lumi`ere/test, zone euro. In the case of tensiom`etre (blood-pressure monitor), one would have expected a feminine gender, given la tension, but this compound noun is masculine. Compound nouns formed with other parts of speech, often, but not always, with verbs, are usually masculine: abat-jour, arc-en-ciel, arrache-clou, ` un noy´e (the casse-cou, en-tˆete (heading on note paper), faire du/le bouche-` a-bouche a use of the definite article is much less common), gobe-mouche (na¨ıve person, sucker), grille-pain (toaster), haut-parleur, lance-flammes/roquettes/satellite, monteplats/charges (as in hotel), ouvre-boˆıtes, qu’en dira-t-on, parapluie, paratonnerre, pique-bœuf (bird on an animal removing its parasites, very common in the Caribbean, and not uncommon in southern France), porte-cigarettes, porteparole,5 prot`ege-tibia (shin guard, as in soccer), r´eveil-matin (alarm clock), savoirfaire, soutien-gorge (bra), tout-` a-l’´egout (drain leading to sewer), tout-venant, trouble-fˆete, trop-plein, volte-face (this word is feminine). The gender of compound nouns made up of arri`ere and avant vary according to the gender of the second noun. Thus arri`ere-boutique/ cour/cuisine/garde/pens´ee/saison are feminine, while arri`ere-goˆ ut/plan/train are masculine. Likewise, avant-garde/premi`ere/sc`ene/veille are feminine, while avant-bras/centre/goˆ ut/propos are masculine. Avant-guerre claims two genders. For the plural of compound nouns, see Chapter 10 on number.
9.3 Difficult cases Even native French speakers can hesitate over the gender of some nouns, such as are contained in the following list. It should be pointed out that few French speakers would make a mistake over the gender of, say, caract`ere, calme or cadavre. Yet masculine nouns like antidote, ast´erisque (easily confused with the Breton hero Ast´erix), ob´elisque (not to be confused with Ob´elix, bosom pal of Ast´erix), s´evices, stigmate and tentacule would test some French speakers, associating as they do the –e ending with the feminine noun. Furthermore, for those who study other Romance languages, such as 5
The compound nouns with the verb porter are too numerous to be listed here. Suffice it to point to a few: porte-avions, porte-bagages, porte-b´eb´e, porte-bouteilles, porte-clefs (key ring), porte-drapeau, porte-monnaie, porte-parapluie. The list includes portefeuille and portemanteau, which are not hyphenated.
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Spanish, the nouns below require serious application. (Calma, foca, hect´ area and u˜ na, quoted merely as examples, are feminine in Spanish, while their equivalents are masculine in French. Conversely, diente, licor and oasis are masculine in Spanish while their equivalents are feminine in French: dent, liqueur, oasis.) The lists below are as comprehensive as possible since they are naturally designed for English speakers: ˆge, agenda, al´eas, alin´ea, amalgame, antidote, antre (lair Masculine: abˆıme, a of animal), apog´ee, appendice (both senses of appendix: part of intestine and addition at the end of a piece of writing), artifice, ast´erisque, astre, astrolabe (Copernicus used one), atome, autodaf´e, autoradio, axe (as in un axe routier), axiome, barbecue, baume, b´eb´e (although small children could easily use a feminine gender here), b´en´edicit´e (grace, said at table), bermuda, blasph`eme, boom, bouge (hovel, shack: not to be confused with feminine bauge), br´eviaire, bromure (bromide), brouhaha, buisson, cadavre, caduc´ee,6 calme, calque (tracing paper, calque in linguistics), campanile (bell tower; also the logo of a French national chain of small hotels; not to be confused with campanule below), caract`ere, carˆeme (Lent), carrosse (as with Cinderella), casque, c´enotaphe, chˆ ale, le Petit Chaperon Rouge (Little Red Riding Hood; see Section 9.6 below for a discussion of this feature), charabia (R1 = nonsense), charme (as in Je me porte comme un charme), chaume, ch`evrefeuille, chlore (chlorine), chlorure (chloride), choix, chol´era, cierge (candle: has a religious connotation), cilice (hair shirt), cloaque (R3 = cesspit), cobaye (guinea pig), Colis´ee (in Rome), comble, concile (as in le concile de Trente, 1545–1563, which deliberated on the Counter-Reformation), conciliabule, crible, crime, culte, d´edale (room for confusion here), delta, deltaplane, dialecte, dilemme, disco (but discoth`eque is feminine), dithyrambe (panegyric), diur´etique, dividende, dogme, dˆome, ´echange (as in E´change n’est pas vol = Exchange is no robbery), ´edifice, effluve(s), ´elastique, ´eloge, embl`eme, ´epiderme, ´episode, ´equinoxe, estuaire, exemple, exode (as in the Bible but here = Exode), exorde (R3 = introduction to a piece of work), fantoche, farniente, fascicule, faste, flegme (as in the traditionally viewed flegme britannique), fleuve, formulaire, frontispice (title page of a book), furoncle (boil on body), g´en´erique, geste, globe, globule, glucose, gouffre (as in les gouffres de Padeyrac, in France), grimoire (book of magic, as disastrously but fascinatingly interpreted by Mickey Mouse in Paul Dukas’s L’apprenti sorcier), groupe, gymnase, hectare, h´ematome (bruise), h´emisph`ere, hi´eroglyphe, holocauste, humour, iguane, incendie, insecte, interm`ede, interm´ediaire, interrogatoire, intervalle,
6
Caduc´ee: emblem of the medical and pharmaceutical fraternities. Not all French speakers are aware of this term, and hardly any English speaker would know its English equivalent, caduceus, and this includes doctors and pharmacists.
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iota (as in sans changer un iota), (kilo)gramme, labyrinthe, lama (the animal as well as the Buddhist monk), l´egume, libelle (R3 = lampoon), liquide, lobe, logarithme, luxe, magma, manque, mascara, masque, mausol´ee, m´edia(s), m´erite, miasme, micro-ondes, mime, minuit, mol´ecule, monopole, morne (hill, mountain, in Caribbean, Reunion, Quebec, imported by Breton sailors), morse (walruss), moustique, multim´edia, mythe (as in Camus’s Le mythe de Sisyphe), ob´elisque, ongle, opuscule, orbe (as in Copernicus’s revolutionary R´evolutions des orbes c´elestes), orchestre, organe, pactole (gold mine / nice big sum of money), panache, pan´egyrique, panorama, parachute (the most famous parachute in all French history is the one belonging to ´glise during John Steele caught on the church steeple in Sainte-M`ere-E the 1944 invasion of France), parafe (initials), parapente, parapluie (as in the film Les parapluies de Cherbourg), parasite, paratonnerre (invented by Franklin who became the first American minister to visit France and was called there “le bonhomme Richard”), pastiche (Marcel Proust contributed to a journal called Pastiches et m´elanges), p´etale, phoque, p´ecule, p´ediluve (footbath), p´edoncule (stem, of fruit), plˆ atre, polype, prˆeche (R3, now ousted by sermon, although Camus uses it in La peste for the two sermons delivered by P`ere Paneloux), quelque chose, quota, rˆ ale, repaire (lair of animal), reproche, r´equisitoire, reste, rˆeve, rire, rutabaga (swede), saxophone, scarab´ee, sch´ema, scrupule, service, s´evices, silence, solstice, sourire, squelette, st´ero¨ıde, stigmate, suicide, sv/swastika, symptˆome, terre-plein, tentacule, tesson, th´eor`eme, thermos (but can be feminine), tintamarre, tonnerre, trap`eze, tr`efle, trombone (trombone and paper clip), troph´ee, tuba (tuba and snorkel), uniforme, ustensile, vacarme, vice, violoncelle, zeste (peel, of citrus fruit), zodiaque, zona (shingles as viral infection); Feminine: alcˆove, amphore, ancre, annexe (annex of a building, appendix of a book), arabesque, art`ere, atmosph`ere, aura (as in une aura de myst`ere), aur´eole (halo, both literal and metaphorical), autoroute (curiously for an English speaker, French speakers could easily assign a masculine gender to this noun), bauge (lair of wild boar), BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation: note that these letters can be pronounced as in English, especially among anglicistes), boisson, boum (bash/hop), campanule (bluebell), carapace (shell of an animal, tortoise for instance), caract´eristique, cendre, c´ephal´ee (headache), cible, cime, circulaire, CNN (American Broadcasting Company), contagion, croix, crypte, cuisson, cymbale, dent, drag´ee (French speakers could easily consider this noun masculine), dupe, dynamo, ecchymose (bruise), encyclique, ´enigme, ´eph´em´eride (tear-off calender), ´epigramme, ´epitaphe, ´epith`ete, ´equivoque, ´etoile, extase, forˆet, fourmi, garden-party (R3), geˆole (R3), Gestapo, halt`ere (for the more muscular), horreur, idole, idylle, java (party/rave), kalachnikov, libido, liqueur, mappemonde, meule (as in Monet’s S´erie des meules de foin), mimique, mite (moth), mitre (bishop’s miter), mosqu´ee, moustiquaire, noix, nouba (North African military music/party/rave), oasis, ocre, ombre, orbite, orthographe, panac´ee (universelle
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is sometimes used with this word but this is a pleonasm just as it is in English), pantomime (theatrical mime/ridiculous attitude), p´edale, p´enicilline, phalange, populace, primeur (first fruit, as in Brittany), psych´e (swivel mirror, psyche), al-Qaeda, recrue, saga, sentinelle, Shoah ( = Holocaust, becoming common these days in France; it originates in the Hebrew, where it is of the feminine gender, and signifies destruction, catastrophe), sph`ere, spore, stalactite, stalagmite, stratosph`ere, strate (R3 stratum, as in une strate sociale), superbe (haughtiness, R3), toux, topaze, trˆeve, variable, v´esicule (biliaire = gall bladder), victime, vid´eo, vis, vodka. There are a number of masculine nouns which refer to females and males alike: mannequin,7 nu (as in Braque’s Le grand nu), (top-)model, and a number of feminine nouns which regularly refer to males: canaille ( = naughty person, often used affectionately, of a child, for instance, but also villain; when used collectively: rabble), coqueluche ( = darling, idol), crapule (crook), dupe (dupe), grosse l´egume (big wig, top brass), ordure (foul person), recrue (recruit), sentinelle ´toile and star, which are feminine, apply to both (sentry), victime (victim). E male and female stars or celebrities. When basket and tennis refer to footwear, and not types of sport, they are feminine. H´emisph`ere is masculine but atmosph`ere and sph`ere are feminine. Like Gestapo, SS is feminine, but this feminine form is rarely used. Instead, one hears and sees les SS (members of the SS), and here it is masculine. Syllabe is feminine but monosyllabe is masculine. Sentinelle illustrates perfectly the absurdity of applying a female gender to a male sentry. As Alex Taylor states in his hilarious analysis of the language of gender, Bouche b´ee tout ou¨ıe (2010, p. 38): “Encore plus grotesque, lorsqu’il s’agit de d´ecrire les all´ees et venues d’une sentinelle : Elle gravit les marches du parapet, elle revˆetit son uniforme, et elle tailla ses grosses moustaches.” 9.3.1 Doubtful and variable genders It should be noted that a small number of nouns are of doubtful and variable gender and, in some cases, cause hesitation with some French speakers, witness espace below. amour and d´elice are masculine in the singular but feminine in the plural, although amour may be found as a feminine noun in R3 language, in literary texts apr`es-midi, pamplemousse, perce-neige and sandwich have varied in gender, but are now usually masculine. However, apr`es-midi in R3 written mode is often feminine. An excellent illustration of this masculine/feminine fluctuation is the word bic, a trade term. In the masculine (un bic), it means a ball-point pen, but in the feminine form it refers to a sailboard, made by the Bic company); autoroute is usually feminine, but is increasingly used in the masculine; 7
Quebec French has no problem with une mannequin for a female, but metropolitan France does not accept this feminine form.
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bidonville (shanty town) is now masculine; connaisseur is usually masculine when applied to males and females: Elle est connaisseur en vins. But one could hear connaisseuse in R1 language; enfant is masculine and feminine. It depends on the sex of the child; espace is masculine in general use: un espace entre deux voitures / deux tables, un espace vert; but when used by typographers (typographers) it is feminine, and refers to any type of space created on the written page – here most French speakers express uncertainty, or just do not know, and this includes well-informed speakers; esp`ece is feminine when meaning kind, sort, species, but in R1 it is masculine when followed by a masculine noun: un esp`ece de poisson. However, and increasingly, it is found in the masculine form in writing; foudre is feminine in the meaning of thunderbolt. La foudre est tomb´ee sur l’´eglise; Il a ´et´e frapp´e par la foudre. But in certain fixed expressions it is masculine: foudre de guerre, foudre d’´eloquence, C’est un foudre de travail, Il se prenait pour un foudre d’activit´e; gens is feminine when preceded by adjectives (des vieilles gens), but when adjectives follow gens, they are masculine, resulting in an anomaly in the sentence: De(s) vieilles gens sont arriv´es ce matin; hymne is usually masculine: l’hymne national; chanter un hymne religieux; ` la joie de Beethoven est tr`es ´emouvant; but in literary language it L’hymne a can be feminine, and this invests the noun with a certain elegance: Ils chantaient des hymnes ardentes; holding is both masculine and feminine; interview is both masculine and feminine, although the feminine gender seems to prevail these days; nouveau-n´e may apply to male and female newborns alike, rather like b´eb´e. Indeed, one is most likely to hear in all circumstances Je vais voir le nouveau-n´e, even if the baby is female. However, la nouveau-n´ee does exist. Nouvelle would not be used here since nouveau is really an adverb (nouvellement); œuvre is always feminine in the plural (Les plus belles œuvres de l’industrie cin´ematographique) and is usually feminine in the singular: Une œuvre in´edite d’Ir`ene N´emirovsky a connu un grand succ`es. But the entire work of an author/composer/artist may be masculine, and in this sense, it is used in English: l’œuvre entier de Beethoven, tout l’œuvre de Balzac; orge is feminine except in certain expressions one finds in pharmacy. Ses grains sont plus petits que ceux de l’orge commune and orge mond´e/ perl´e; Orgue is masculine when singular but feminine when plural: un orgue de Barbarie (barrel organ); les grandes orgues de Notre Dame. When used metaphorically, it is also feminine in the plural: les orgues basaltiques (basalt columns). This gives rise to the name of the impressive dam in France’s Massif Central: Bort-les-Orgues. It also explains the name of the
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multiple rocket launcher very common in World War II: les orgues de Staline; oriflamme has an undecided gender. It can be masculine, on analogy with drapeau and ´etendard, but the feminine gender occurs, probably determined by flamme; Pˆ aques is treated as masculine when unaccompanied by an article: Pˆ aques fut c´el´ebr´e avec beaucoup de solennit´e. When it is accompanied by an article or any other determiner, it is treated as feminine: Toutes les aque juive Pˆ aques pr´ec´edentes ont ´et´e fˆet´ees avec une grande joie; la Pˆ (Jewish Passover); p´eriode is feminine when it refers to a point in time, and the feminine gender is far more common than its masculine counterpart: la p´eriode quaternaire/lunaire/r´evolutionnaire. But it is masculine in literary style (R3) when it means the “highest point”: le plus haut p´eriode; une angine ` son dernier p´eriode; de poitrine arriv´ee a photocopieuse (feminine) and photocopieur (masculine) both exist, but the feminine form is used more; pornographie is feminine. However, the abbreviated form, porno, is masculine since it has the specific meaning of a “pornographical film/book”: Allez, on va voir un porno; putain, as esp`ece, is feminine when applied to a prostitute, but in colloquial R1 speech it is masculine when followed by a masculine noun: J’en ai marre, de ce putain de mode d’emploi; r´eglisse is both masculine and feminine when referring to a sweet: sucer de la r´eglisse / du r´eglisse. As a plant, it is feminine; SS, when applied to the notorious Nazi police/military unit, is masculine, and SS is most common with this meaning; t´el´ecabine hesitates between the masculine and feminine genders, although the latter is more common.
9.4 Homonyms The following is a list of homonyms (words which have the same sound) that have identical spellings but are of different genders: aide aigle
M F M
F
assistant help, female assistant male eagle (also general); insignia bearing an eagle (e.g., l’aigle blanc de la Pologne). “General” above suggests that, if one saw an eagle, one would automatically say un aigle, if one were not an expert in the sex of eagles. female eagle, heraldic sign, standard surmounted by eagle (e.g. les aigles romaines)
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aspirine
M F
basket
M F M F M F
champagne Champagne chef
chose
M
faux
F M F M F M F M F M
faune
F M
crˆepe critique diesel dramatique
finale garde geste
F M F M F M F
an aspirin tablet (R1) aspirin (medication). Aspirine in its masculine form is colloquial but very common and suggests the omission of un cachet d’, cachet being masculine. basketball trainers, sneakers champagne Champagne region leader, boss (female) boss (R1). Chef used with reference to a female has a pejorative connotation: Elle est o` u, la chef ? thingummybob (R1). The masculine gender refers to any thing or person one cannot or does not wish to name: Donne-moi ce . . . chose; Cette Madame, ce Monsieur Chose. The masculine gender of chose also appears as the title of Alphonse Daudet’s Le petit chose. thing crepe (material) pancake critic criticism, female critic diesel (fuel) diesel (automobile) drama (i.e., what is dramatic) short play on TV that which is false: distinguer le vrai du faux; fake as in the paradoxal statement of a painting: un vrai faux scythe faun (mythical creature as in Debussy’s L’apr`es-midi d’un faune) fauna (animal kingdom) finale (in music) final (in soccer, rugby, etc.) guard, warden protection, guards, private nurse gesture courageous exploit ( = une chanson de geste; as in La chanson de Roland). The feminine form of geste is slightly archaic, although it is common enough in the example provided. In the
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gˆıte
greffe gruy`ere Gruy`ere guide
jet
livre manche
manoeuvre martyre m´emoire merci
M
F M F M F M F M F M F M F
M F M F M F M F
mode
M
mort
F M F
moule mousse
M F M F
plural, it is frequently used in the expression: La police l’a interrog´ee sur ses faits et gestes. resting place, lodging (R3), as in les Gˆıtes de France. The Gˆıtes de France are a popular form of “Bed and Breakfast,” and this usage is common (R2). list of ship record office (often for legal proceedings) graft (for plants and humans), transplant gruy`ere cheese region in Switzerland guide (person or book). One would readily see le Guide Michelin (for gastronomic purposes). rein, girl guide, female guide jet (airplane) jet set. One does occasionally come across jet in the masculine form when meaning jet set. book pound (weight, money) handle (i.e., of broom) sleeve, round (in sport), La Manche ( = English Channel and the French department: Quel est le code postal de La Manche ?). Une premi`ere/deuxi`eme manche in a game refers to the first/second game, as in tennis or table tennis. labourer maneuver martyrdom female martyr (martyr means a male martyr) long dissertation, report; memoirs memory thank you ( = un grand merci) mercy. The feminine form is largely used in the ` la merci de quelqu’un (at someone’s expression a mercy). method, mood (linguistic). In the masculine form, one would see le mode indicatif/subjonctif. fashion dead person (male) death. Morte refers to a dead person of female sex. mold (for making something) mussel ship’s boy moss, froth (on beer, etc.), rubber foam
Gender
office ombre page pendule
physique poˆele politique poste primeur
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M F M F M F M F
M F M F M F M F M F
pub
pupille radio somme tour
vague vapeur vase vigile
M F M F M F M F M
F M F M F M F M F
function, role, bureau butler’s larder/pantry grayling (fish) shade, shadow page boy page (in book or newspaper) pendulum clock. Clearly, the feminine form derives ` pendule, where horloge is from horloge a feminine. physique physics stove frying pan politician politics, policy post, station, set (radio or television) postal service seller of the early fruits of the year (Je vais chez le primeur) (to be the) first (to hear of something): la primeur des nouvelles (English) public house / pub (for consumption of alcohol and, now, food commercial, advertisement (R1) ward ( = les pupilles de la nation) pupil of the eye wireless operator radio, Xray siesta, snooze amount, sum trick, turn, journey. C’est mon tour = It’s my turn ` qui le tour ? = Whose turn is it? Also: le and A Tour de France tower, rook (chess) vagueness wave (on sea) steamer vapor, steam vase slime night watchman, security guard vigil (on day before a feast, e.g., la vigile de No¨el = Christmas Eve)
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visa voile
M F M F
visa (used with passport) Visa (credit card) veil (as in le voile int´egral) sail
The following is a list of homonyms (words which have the same sound) that do not have identical spellings, and that have different genders: air `ere aire
M F F
haire h`ere
F M/F
r bal balle bar barre basilic basilique but butte capital capitale central centrale
M M F M F M F M F M F M F
chˆene chaˆıne col colle coq coque cours
M F M F M F M
court cour fait faˆıte
M F M M
air, draft, tune era (as in `ere chr´etienne/tertiaire) playing/rest area, threshing floor; Camus uses aire metaphorically in La peste: “l’aire sanglante de la douleur” (1962a, p. 1296). One frequently finds une aire de repos on the side of French highways; also une aire r´ecr´eative = a recreational area. hair shirt as in le pauvre h`ere = the poor wretch; h`ere also means a young deer le r (i.e., the letter r) ball (dance) ball (sport), shot, bale, bullet bar (for serving drinks) bar (of wood, metal), tiller basil (herb/plant) basilica aim, goal. The t of but can be unsounded. hillock (as in Les Buttes Chaumont in Paris) capital, assets capital city, capital letter telephone exchange (t´el´ephonique) (generating) station, nuclear plant (´electrique/nucl´eaire) oak tree chain collar, mountain pass paste, glue cock shell, hull (of ship) course, waterway, class ( = lesson), private school court (de tennis/squash, etc.) court (cour royale), yard fact apex of roof, mountain, etc.
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fˆete foie foi fois g`ene gˆene hall halle
F M F F M F M F
maire mer m`ere pair p`ere paire parti partie pois poids poix pot peau sel selle
M F F M M F M F M M F M F M F
festival, feast day liver faith time, occasion gene discomfort, awkwardness entrance, vestibule, hall (often plural) covered market. It must be added that the a of hall is normally pronounced like a closed o, while the a of halle is pronounced like the a of salle, e.g., Chˆ atelet/Les Halles (in Paris). mayor sea mother peer father pair (as in Les deux font la paire) party (political, etc.), decision part, game (e.g., of soccer) pea weight pitch pot, luck (R1) skin salt saddle
The following is a list of homonyms where genders remain the same, and are differentiated by spelling only. There are two cases (jeune/jeˆ une, tache/tˆ ache) where there is just a slight variation in spelling: ancre encre chair chaire champ chant cilice silice compte comte conte cou coup
F F F F M M M M M M M M M
anchor ink flesh pulpit, (university) chair field song hair shirt (for penitence) silica account count, earl tale neck blow, knock
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coˆ ut dessein dessin ˆetre hˆetre faim fin filtre philtre jeune jeˆ une mante menthe martyr martyre mess messe
M M M M M F F M M M (and F) M F F M M M F
pain pin saut sceau seau sot tache tˆ ache vair ver verre vers
M M M M M M F F M M M M
cost, price plan, design drawing, art (as in school) (human) being beech tree hunger end filter (as for a cigarette) philter, as in philtre d’amour = love potion young person, youth fast(ing), as in observer le jeˆ une mantle, mantis, as in mante religieuse ` la menthe mint, as in th´e a martyr martyrdom mess, as in le mess des officiers ` la messe / Gounod’s mass, as in aller a La messe de Sainte C´ecile bread, loaf pine tree jump, leap seal (as with wax) bucket fool stain, spot task squirrel fur worm glass line of verse
There are numerous same-sounding words which may be considered as homonyms but are different parts of speech. Here is just a small sample, and only a small sample since this section deals with gender: bas (low) / bas (stocking / panty hose); noyer (walnut tree) / noyer (to drown); prˆet (loan) / prˆet (ready); sur (on) / sur (sharp, as of taste) / sˆ ur (sure / certain). See also Chapter 2, Section 2.11.1 which has a slight overlap with this information but contains much more detail on similar-sounding groups of words.
9.5 Gender of inanimate entities Automobiles: all names of automobiles are feminine, doubtless on analogy with the feminine form of voiture: une BM(W), une Buick, une Chrysler, une Ford, une Jaguar, une Rolls, une Toyota. However, one does say un break
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(station waggon / estate car), and un 4/4 ( = un quatre/quatre = off-road vehicle, 4x4), the latter following the logic of un 2, un 3, un 4; Boats: despite controversy among some grammarians, the masculine gender is usually assigned to boats, doubtless on analogy with the masculine form of bateau: le France, le Normandie, le Reine Elizabeth; Vehicles: turbo, diesel and turbo-diesel are feminine when referring to the vehicle but masculine when referring to the engine. Diesel has no written acute accent, coming as it does from the French-born, German engineer. The gender of semi-remorque (tractor trailor / articulated trailer) is particularly controversial: the majority view is that it is feminine when it is an articulated vehicle and masculine when it is a semitrailer. Most French speakers do not recognize the difference. Little wonder. Le petit Robert states it is masculine only, while the Canadian ´va de Villers offers two genders; MULTI dictionnaire of Marie-E Airplanes: as with names of boats, there is controversy here too. Most airplanes are masculine on analogy with the masculine gender of avion (le Boeing, le Concorde, l’Airbus) but the French airplane Caravelle, now out of commission, was unquestionably feminine, following the argument that the boat itself is feminine; Watches: all names of watches are feminine since montre is feminine: une Rolex, une Seiko, une Tissot; Companies: all names are feminine since compagnie is feminine: la General Motors, la Philips, la Fiat, la BMW, la Lyonnaise des Eaux; Holidays and festivals: those involving saints’ names, whether the saint is male or female, are feminine. Clearly the feminine fˆete determines ` la Saint-Valentin, la Saint-Sylvestre ( = New Year’s Eve), the gender here: a la Saint-Jean (Midsummer Day), la Toussaint (All Saints’ Day = period of Hal´piphanie; le massacre de la Saint-Bart´elemy (marks the slaughter loween), l’E of Protestants in Paris in 1572); Hotels with stars: these are masculine, on analogy with hˆotel, which is masculine: un trois/quatre/cinq ´etoiles; Cheeses and wines: these are masculine, following the masculine gender of fromage and vin: du brie, du camembert, du cantal, du champagne, un cˆotes du Rhˆone, un beaujolais, un chablis, un rioja, un pened`es (Spain), un riesling, un chianti; Types of grape: un blanc, un rouge, un ros´e, un cabernet sauvignon, un chardonnay; Students: les premi`ere/deuxi`eme etc. ann´ee when referring to first-/secondyear students, male and female, would be masculine, and would only be feminine if all the students referred to were females. Note that premi`ere/deuxi`eme ann´ee is invariable for number: Les premi`ere ann´ee sont aussi studieux que les deuxi`eme ann´ee; Letters: all names of letters are masculine. The reason is that caract`ere is masculine. Strangely enough, in the Middle Ages, letters were
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feminine, and where and when the change took place is not clear: le a, le b, le e, le i, le m, le x; Numbers: when a specific page number is referred to, the masculine form of the number is more usual, but the feminine form cannot be ` la page un/une, a ` la page vingt-et-un/une. But excluded: Prenez vos livres a when a collection of pages is referred to, the feminine form is used: vingt-et-une pages. In sporting classification, the numeral follows the noun in the masculine even if the noun is feminine: Les ´ Etats-Unis sont en poule un ( = pool 1), le Canada en poule 2; Leur ´equipe est en division un; Names of towns: towns provide a more difficult problem. Generally speaking, they are masculine: le tout Paris, New York est trop grand, Ottawa est tr`es froid en hiver. But some are feminine: Rome la belle. Le petit Larousse refers constantly to Ath`enes as elle, in the entry for this city. Logically, one would have expected all cities to be feminine, since ville and cit´e (old part of the city) are feminine. Uncertainty rules here: Marseille est grand(e). Most French people would doubtless say le nouveau/vieux P´ekin, as in Lib´eration (August 9/10, 2008), but in the same article one reads: “P´ekin s’est vid´ee”; Names of countries (see Chapter 64 for usage with names of countries): there is not a hard and fast rule for the gender of countries. Some 60 percent of countries are feminine: l’Argentine, la France, l’Espagne, Etats-Unis, le l’Italie. Some 40 percent of countries are masculine: les ´ Japon, le P´erou; Names of rivers: names of rivers outside Europe are all masculine, doubtless on analogy with fleuve. At some ill-defined, probably colonial period, this masculine form imposed itself, while the feminine form for some European rivers was determined by tradition going `bre/Escaut/ back to the Middle Ages. Masculine: l’Amazone/Amur/E Euphrate/; le Colorado/Danube/Gange/Limpopo/M´ekong/Mississippi/Missouri/ Nil/Parana/Pˆo/Rhin/Rhˆone/Saint-Laurent/Tibre/Tigre/Tage/Yang-Tseu/Zamb`eze. Feminine: la Loire/Garonne/Saˆone/Tamise/Vistula/Volga; French d´epartements: these are similarly divided over the gender issue (see Chapter 64 for usage with countries). Masculine: l’Aveyron, le Calvados, le Doubs, le Nord, le P´erigord, le Vaucluse. Feminine: l’Ard`eche, la Charente, la Drˆome, la Loire Atlantique, la Meuse; Administrative states and provinces in USA and Canada: some are masculine, and some are feminine. Masculine: l’Alaska, l’Arizona, le Labrador, le Manitoba, le Nebraska, le Qu´ebec, le Yukon, le Maine, le Maryland, le Nevada, l’Indiana, l’Ohio, le Texas, le Nouveau-Mexique. Feminine: l’Alberta, la Californie, la Caroline du Nord/Sud, la Colombie britannique, la Floride, la G´eorgie, ´cosse, la Louisiane, la Saskatchewan, la Virginie, la Pennsylvanie, la Nouvelle-E Terre-Neuve; Counties in the British Isles: all counties in England are masculine (Je passe mes vacances dans le Hampshire / le Sussex) save Les Cornouailles;
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Regions of France and other European countries (see Chapter 64 for more on usage): these are either masculine or feminine. Masculine: le Limousin, le Languedoc-Roussillon, le Nord-Pas-de-Calais. Feminine: l’Aquitaine, la Bretagne, la Franche-Comt´e, la Picardie, la Provence, l’Andalousie, la Castille, la Catalogne, la Galice, la Flandre, la Wallonie, la Toscane, la Bavi`ere.
9.6 Sex and gender8 This topic is a linguistic minefield, as it is in other Romance languages. As women assume new roles in Western society, roles that were denied them in the past, French, like Spanish and Italian, have had to accommodate new feminine forms, and feminists, men and women, are doing their best to establish new ways of referring to females in a constantly evolving community. As will be seen in this section, the feminine form of professional nouns is now used regularly and applies to females across the spectrum of professional activities. Quebec is in the forefront of this movement, while the Acad´emie franc¸aise is still dragging its heels. Quebec clearly does not feel the weight of tradition of metropolitan France. 9.6.1 Female professional titles Certain nouns denoting persons change their gender according to the sex of the person denoted, and no serious disturbance is caused here: un/une camarade, un/une complice, un/une ´el`eve, un/une enfant (but generally un beb´e), un/une esclave, un/une leader, un/une pensionnaire, un/une touriste. However, in recent years, because of the rising tide of justified female occupancy in the higher reaches of professional activities, there has been, and still is, much controversy over the feminization of professional names. A tame, and fruitless, Commission de terminologie reported on the subject in 1984, but its recommendations have not been universally accepted, let alone adopted, and practice is chaotic, partly due to male resistance, but also due to society’s reluctance to admit words that sound odd or rebarbative (e.g., autrice = female author), or contain sexual affirmations that even some females are unhappy with, as with autrice. Clearly, much heated discussion has been generated over this subject, and no obvious way forward seems to have been opened up. In some cases, it is sufficient, as with the previous group of examples, simply to change the article from the traditional masculine to the feminine to indicate that a female is being referred to. This change can be operated with no difficulty when the male word ends in an e, a letter one easily associates with a feminine gender: une dentiste, une juge, une journaliste, 8
For more information on this topic, see the enlightening article in Hanse and Blampain’s dictionary, “Probl`eme de la f´eminisation = France, Qu´ebec, Suisse, Belgique,” 2005, p. 273).
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une kin´esith´erapeute (physiotherapist), une ministre, une pilote, une photographe, une peintre, une propri´etaire. In other cases, the addition of a final e or a standard feminine form is now acceptable: une avocate, une d´efenseure, une successeure, une d´eput´ee (une d´eput´e is more acceptable in a higher register), ´va de Villers’s dictionary, which describes une magistrate (given by Marie-E this term as a “fonctionnaire charg´e [no extra feminine e] de rendre la justice”), une ambassadrice, une directrice, une po´etesse. Typically, however, and we take avocate as an example, agreement with other parts of the sentence may cause difficulty. If a collective idea is suggested, avocat could end up in the masculine form: Elle est un des meilleurs avocats de sa g´en´eration. A problem can also arise when reference has been made to a female teacher (e.g., Mme Dupont): Mme Dupont est un excellent professeur (already uncertainty here) but afterwards does one say: Il va malheureusement nous quitter or Elle va . . . ? Does one refer to the female Mme Dupont or un professeur? Logic must prevail so that Elle is used. The use of Il here would be absurd. Yet, without strict reference to Mme Dupont, a pupil would readily say Mon professeur est absent, although in Quebec one would hear more easily Ma professeure est absente. A similar difficulty arises with le petit Chaperon Rouge (Little Red Riding Hood). Would the sentence: Le petit Chaperon Rouge ` la porte d’une traversa la forˆet be followed by Il or by elle – Il/Elle frappa a chaumi`ere? Il would be awkward although grammatically correct while elle would be grammatically incorrect. One would doubtless resort to la petite fille to resolve the dilemma. A number one female tennis player could be either la tenniswoman num´ero un mondial or la tenniswoman num´ero un mondiale. Doctoresse is normal French when speaking with a child but not among adults and especially professionally: Allez, ma grande/puce, on va voir la doctoresse. This does not apply to all nouns which potentially belong to this class; for example, chercheur (research worker), ´eleveur (cattle breeder), professeur (see below) and t´emoin (witness) are nearly always masculine, but feminization is occurring here: Elle est chercheur/euse au CNRS. Whether one uses le or la before chercheur leads to an unresolved debate. Certainly, chercheuse exists, but often only in the sense of a person who looks for something as in Rimbaud’s poem: Les chercheuses de poux. What is incontrovertibly certain, however, is that the status of a university female teacher with research commitments is and can only be, at the time of writing, un enseignant chercheur. No feminine form for proviseur exists, so that both Madame le proviseur and Madame la proviseur occur. Notairesse once existed but has fallen into disuse, although Ir`ene N´emirovsky uses it in Suite franc¸aise (1942). In some further cases, the choice of gender is a matter of status, and this must cause dismay for some in the female community, just as the male manager in English is used for females with reference to a high position of authority, while the feminine manageress seems to offer a demeaning view of a woman. The masculine confers a high status on a female, and
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the feminine invests her with a much lower status. Little wonder that H´el`ene Carr`ere d’Encausse insists on her role as the secr´etaire perp´etuel of the Acad´emie franc¸aise. Secr´etaire remains obdurately masculine when applied to a woman holding a position at the top of the organizational hierarchy. Witness also: Madame le secr´etaire du parti communiste, although la secr´etaire may be used here. It is quite likely that a female in this position would prefer to be known as Madame le secr´etaire, for the obvious reason of status. The same remark applies to conseiller: Mme Bernard est conseiller en ´economie. French radio in 2010 refers to female inspectors and senators as Mme l’inspecteur and Mme la s´enateur, again for reasons of status. Conseill`ere exists (as in conseill`ere municipale), but, quite understandably if not justifiably, is used in more lowly domains. Although acad´emicienne exists, the first female of the Acad´emie franc¸aise, Marguerite Yourcenar, author of the highest literary standing, did not succeed in having the feminine form applied to her, and was known as acad´emicien, although in Belgium female members of the Acad´emie royale de Belgique are known as acad´emicienne. Procureur g´en´eral (= attorney/director of public prosecution) remains adamantly masculine: Louise ´dith Cresson, who was la Arbour, procureur g´en´eral, charg´e de . . . And so does E premi`ere premier ministre! In the same vein, one can say Madame le/la maire. Perhaps, paradoxically, the said person would prefer to be called Madame le maire. Mairesse also exists, and Quebec French would plead for this form, while it would not be out of place in small French towns and villages. But it would be difficult to imagine the title Mairesse de Paris/Lyon. Yet again, the combative leader of the French Socialist Party, Martine Aubry, is called la Mairesse de Lille. Savant, with the meaning of scientist (scientifique) has traditionally only been masculine, witness examples in dictionaries. Thus one reads in Le petit ´va de Villers states that Robert: “Marie Curie fut un grand savant.” Marie-E savant is both masculine and feminine but it is not clear from this that savant has a separate feminine form: savante. The examples she provides are `ve Curie, in her biography of her mother, in the masculine form. However, E affirms: “Elle ´etait une tr`es jeune savante” (1938, p. 81). In a general way, there is no reason at all why savante should not be used with reference to females, and this feminine form does not strike a dissonant note for the average French speaker. M´ec`ene (artistic, literary benefactor) is also a source of difficulty. All dictionaries provide only a masculine form, and Le petit Robert illustrates thus the use of m´ec`ene: “Cette riche h´eriti`ere est le m´ec`ene d’un groupe d’artistes.” `ve Curie states of her mother: “Elle ne trouve que trois m´ec`enes dispos´es E ` faire un tel geste” (1938, p. 142). Probably if this term were subject to a a greater diffusion, it would have enjoyed a feminine definite article: la m´ec`ene. Informed opinion sees no obstacle to this form. Pass´e maˆıtre provides another linguistic conundrum with repect to the feminine gender. Does one say Elle est pass´e maˆıtre, pass´e maˆıtresse, pass´ee
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maˆıtresse or pass´ee maˆıtre dans l’art de trouver des donateurs? It is quite clear that the last suggestion is the only acceptable one. Just as one would only write: Elle est pass´ee maˆıtre dans l’art de mentir. One can assess the development of the French language with respect to `ve Curie when she writes in the 1930s of gender by referring again to E her mother: “Professeur, chercheur et directeur de laboratoire, Mme Curie travaille . . .” (1938, p. 123). Nowadays one would read professeure, chercheur et directrice de laboratoire, but as recently as 2006 one still read of Marie Curie: “Elle assume son rˆ ole de directeur de recherche” (Balibar 2006, p. 75). As noted above, chercheur wishes to remain stubbornly masculine when applied to a researcher, and in French university brochures, this is the case. Yet `ve de Villers, a Canadian, states clearly that chercheuse may be used Marie-E for a researcher. In numerous cases where a new form would be required, the French of France is much more reticent over admitting new gender forms. Unlike French speakers of Quebec, Belgium and Switzerland, the linguistic hierarchy resists innovation. The following terms, frequently unacceptable in France, and in some cases certainly contentious, are common currency in Quebec, where an openness and willingness to change illustrate the great divide between the Acad´emie franc¸aise and the French of Quebec. The posts available to women in the armed forces are a striking case in point. The nouns in bold below show some willingness on the part of la France m´etropolitaine to bow to the inevitable, but the very first noun in this list (agente), for example, meets stringent rebuttal in France. Thus, in France, a James Bond female acquaintance could be une amante discr`ete but not une agente secr`ete. Yet in Quebec she could be the latter. She could also be une espionne in all French-speaking countries, like Mata Hari, the Dutch dancer who extracted information from the Allies in World War I: agente (double/immobili`ere/secr`ete/de change/de voyages/de police), aiguilleuse, annonceure/ annonceuse, armuri`ere, aspirante, assureuse/assureure, auteure, aviatrice, banqui`ere, barmaid, bˆ atonni`ere, boxeuse, brancadi`ere, brigadi`ere, cadre, cadreuse, camionneuse, caporale, chanceli`ere, chauffeure/chauffeuse, chef, chercheuse, coauteure, colonelle, commandante, conf´erenci`ere, consule, courti`ere, couvreuse, croupi`ere, diaconesse, d´efenseure, docteure, ´ecrivaine, ´eleveuse, encadreuse, factrice, figurante, forgeronne, garde foresti`ere (forestier still seems to be preferred), Garde des Sceaux, g´en´erale, g´erante, golfeuse, greffi`ere, huissi`ere, industrielle, ing´enieure, intervenante, lieutenante, lieutenante-gouverneure, mac¸onne, maˆıtre d’hˆotel, marin, matelot, m´edecin, militaire, motarde, offici`ere, pasteure, patrouilleuse, polici`ere, pr´ef`ete, premi`ere ministre, procureure, professeure, proviseure, rectrice, r´eviseuse/r´eviseure, sergente, soldate, vainqueure. Comments on some of the above, with other features: Cadre: there is some resistance in France to une cadre, and this depends on the working environment. A female environment would happily
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accept une cadre. Uneasiness is felt here with many male speakers in France. Quebec offers no resistance at all. In any case one hears une cadre sup´erieure as much as une cadre; Chef: in the English sense of chef, a chef cuisinier provokes unusual torment in French circles. Does one refer to a female chef as la chef in this context? An unresolved issue: although Quebec French sees no obstacle in la cheffe (but it is not included in the MULTI dictionnaire) for which there is no precedent, French acad´emiciens do not find it felicitous and reject it. The closest one comes to this novel creation is the standard French veuf/veuve. It is of value to note that Switzerland uses la cheffe in la cheffe des policiers in Geneva courts; Ma¨ıeuticien is a male sage-femme (midwife). Of some currency in the 1980s, this term is now little used. Sage-femme is applied to a male, but it would be odd to say C’est un sage-femme. One regularly says now un homme sage-femme. One could say Il est sage-femme, avoiding the indefinite article, but even here uneasiness is experienced. Other possibilities put forward: sagehomme, sage-homme. In Quebec, midwives must belong to the Ordre des Sages-femmes du Qu´ebec, so that a male midwife remains resolutely sage-femme. Whether one says in Quebec un or une sage-femme for a male is not clear. The English male midwife is much easier. See also ma¨ıeutique in Chapter 10, Section 10.5. French generally attempts to accommodate the feminization of professions with the introduction of femme: une femme auteur/´ecrivain/ing´enieur/magistrat/m´edecin/officier/policier/politique/chef d’entreprise; Maˆıtre d’hˆotel: maˆıtresse would be unacceptable here, given its sexual connotation. This is a general problem with maˆıtresse. Similarly, maˆıtre de conf´erences/c´er´emonies alone would be acceptable, as would pass´e maˆıtre for a female. It seems clear enough that maˆıtre combined with nageur gives maˆıtre-nageuse (female lifeguard); Marin: marine already has meanings: art of sailing, navy; Matelot: matelote already has meanings: fish stew, hornpipe; M´edecin: m´edecine already has an obvious meaning: medicine; Coiffeur is used in the masculine in the general sense, whether reference is made to a male or to a female: Je vais chez le coiffeur. But coiffeuse is used specifically with respect to a female hairdresser: Ma coiffeuse m’a dit ce matin que . . . ; Otage (un/une) has no distinctive feminine form; Professeur: as far as professeur is concerned, the following possibilities exist: une femme professeur, Elle est mon professeur pr´ef´er´e or, in R1, Elle est ma prof pr´ef´er´ee; Peintre has traditionally only been masculine. Yet there is no reason why ´va de Villers one should not say une peintre. Indeed, the Canadian Marie-E is happy with this form.
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On an affectionate and slightly old-fashioned note, with a literary tinge, the male refers to his female partner in the masculine form. Proust writes, for example, “Mon pauvre ch´eri,” when the female Odette is referred to. Similarly, Colette speaks of herself and female partner: “Nous nous traitions de ‘Mon vieux.’” There is some resistance to this practice, regarded as it is as a little mawkish. The converse also exists – the female using the feminine gender when referring to her male partner: Mais, ma petite mignonne, tu as bonne figure. This second convention is no longer apparent these days, and would create uneasiness if used. Paria illustrates perfectly the problem of gender applied to a female. No dictionary assigns a feminine gender to it. It remains resolutely masculine. A word of Sinhalese origin, not Hindi, it refers to both males and females. There seems to be no reason why one cannot say and write: une paria. Mandarin provides an even more complicated case, since une mandarine refers to the mandarine orange. Benjamin has a feminine form: benjamine. Surprising for an English speaker who views this name applied exclusively to the youngest male in a family or group, benjamine defines the youngest daughter in a family or youngest girl in a group. Po´etesse also exists, but has a pejorative resonance and has fallen into miscuse. It is replaced by po`ete, which remains obdurately masculine, hence the disconcerting juxtaposition of grande and grand in Franc¸ois Bayrou’s Henri IV: “Marguerite de Navarre, grande humaniste et grand po`ete” (1994, p. 13). 9.6.2 Names of chateaux, churches and cathedrals The gender of these buildings can vary according to what the author or speaker has in mind, and this frequently depends on the actual name of the building. In the case of chateaux, the masculine gender is the obvious choice: J’admire la grandeur de Versailles. Je le recommande; Blois est-il plus grand que V´ez´elay ? In the case of churches and cathedrals, usage may vary, since Saint Peter’s basilica in Rome, for instance, may be masculine or feminine, depending on whether the author has the masculine gender of Saint Pierre in mind or the feminine word basilique: Saint-Pierre a ´et´e commenc´e(e) en 1134; Sens, Beauvais, Laon, Soissons, Amiens, Bourges sont lumineuses comme des halles de verre; SaintFront a ´et´e reconstruit au XIXe si`ecle. But Notre-Dame seems always to have been feminine: Notre-Dame, entreprise d`es 1166, n’est pas encore achev´ee. Grotte is always treated as a feminine noun, presumably on analogy with the feminine gender of grotte, although Lascaux is masculine: Lascaux est sauv´e. Similarly, through metonymy, numerous genders change to suit certain objects. A Dutch cheese is du hollande (du fromage de Hollande – and even notice the lower case of hollande); a Champagne wine is du champagne (du vin
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de Champagne); a Havana cigar is un havane (un cigare de la Havane); a Citro¨en car is une Citro¨en (une voiture); a camera is un Leica; a washing machine is une ` laver). Miele/Vedette/Whirlpool (une machine a 9.6.3 The world of nature (for trees see Section 9.2.1 above) As with the often inexplicable vagaries with gender as applied to humans, gender and sex with reference to animals, birds, insects and obviously less so with flowers are fraught with difficulty. The authors make no special claims to zoological competence in the classifications below. In a general way, the non-expert in zoology will make no distinction between the male and female aigle, renard and renarde, or ´el´ephant and ´el´ephante. Indeed, hardly any French speakers would use renarde and ´el´ephante, and would fail to recognize them as French words. The masculine form is used in these, and other, cases. There are, however, some comforting features: 1. In many cases, there is a completely separate, and quite different, noun for males and females. In others, a feminization of the masculine noun takes place. In this initial list where the two nouns are entirely different from each other, the first noun is male/masculine and the second is female/feminine: chameau > chamelle, cheval/´etalon > jument, chevreuil > chevrette, cochon > truie, mulet > mule, taureau/bœuf > vache, daim/cerf > biche, bouc > ch`evre, li`evre > hase, mouton/b´elier > brebis, sanglier > laie, singe > guenon (hase and laie are rare terms) ˆne > a ˆnesse, chat/matou > chatte, 2. Feminization of the masculine noun: a chien > chienne, ´el´ephant > ´el´ephante, lion > lionne, tigre > tigresse, lapin > lapine, loup > louve, mulet > mule, ours > ourse, poulain > pouliche, rat > rate, renard > renarde (lapine, ´el´ephante, rate and renarde are rare terms) 3. There is a group of names of animals where only one gender seems to exist. In the masculine form, these are: babouin, berger allemand, bison, buffle, chacal, chamois, chimpanz´e, couguar/cougouar, coursier, coyote, dromadaire, ´ecureuil, ´elan, fauve (wild animal, big cat = lion, tiger), gorille, gu´epard, hippopotame, iguane, jaguar, kangourou, lama, l´eopard (as in Lampedusa’s Italian novel Le l´eopard = Il gattopardo), l´evrier, limier, loir, mulot, orang-outan(g), orignal, panda, paresseux, poney, puma, pursang, putois, renne, rhinoc´eros, rongeur, tapir, z`ebre. Animals with only feminine genders are: baleine, gazelle, gerbille, girafe, hy`ene, mangouste, marmotte, mouffette, panth`ere, souris, tortue. Yet how does one deal with the male sex of a mammal with a female gender? Does one say une baleine/panth`ere/girafe mˆ ale or un baleine/panth`ere/girafe (mˆ ale)? Likewise and conversely, what does one say of a female mammal where only the masculine gender seems to exist – un bison/´ecureuil/hippopotame femelle or une bison/´ecureuil/hippopotame femelle? This is an inconclusive matter, and applies to all Romance languages.
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Exactly the same uncertainties occur in the gender of birds where the person untutored in zoology does not and cannot distinguish between males and females. There is a small group of birds where the masculine and feminine forms exist and this causes no difficulty for most French speakers, save for jars and paonne: canard > cane, coq > poule, dindon > dinde, faisan > faisane, jars > oie, paon > paonne, pigeon > pigeonne, sylphe > sylphide, tourtereau > tourterelle. Birds with a masculine gender include: aigle, albatros, ara (macaw), b´ecasseau, canari, chardonneret, choucas, colibri, condor, corbeau, cormoran (no t), coucou, cygne (swan: as in Tchaikovsky’s Le lac des cygnes), dodo/dronte (now extinct), ´echassier, ´epervier, ´etourneau, faucon, flamant, geai, h´eron, hibou, ibis, kestrel, martin-pˆecheur, martinet, merle, milan, moineau, p´elican, perroquet, pingouin, pique-bœuf (tick bird, very common in the Caribbean and tropical climates where this creature removes annoying insects from cattle and therefore both derive a benefit), pinson, pivert, pluvier, ptarmigan (grouse, state bird of Alaska more known in Europe as lagop`ede des Alpes, which is also masculine), quetzatl (prized bird in Mexico), ramier, rapace, roitelet, rossignol (as in Stravinsky’s opera Le rossignol), rouge-gorge, sansonnet, vautour. Birds with a feminine gender include: alouette (as in the song Alouette, gentille alouette . . . ), autruche, bergeronnette, buse, caille, chauve-souris (bat: as in Johan Strauss’s La chauve-souris), chouette, cigogne (they fly from North Africa to Alsace in the springtime and return in the fall), colombe, corneille, cr´ecerelle, grive, grue, hirondelle, mouette, palombe, pie (magpie: as in Rossini’s La pie voleuse), perdrix, pipistrelle, sarcelle. As with mammals above, the man in the street, like the authors, would not recognize a male bird from a female bird when seen from a distance. If one had to distinguish, would one say: une hirondelle mˆ ale or un hirondelle mˆ ale? Likewise, would one say un geai femelle or une geai femelle? There seems to be no guiding principle with respect to the gender of fish. The following is a random list of common fish and water animals classified according to gender. Masculine: brochet, carrelet, dauphin, maquereau, marsouin, merlan, morse, phoque, ragondin, requin, rouget, saumon, thon, vairon. Feminine: anguille, carpe, dorade, loutre, morue, ondine, sardine. Miscellaneous in this group: crustac´es (shell fish): le crabe, la crevette, une ´ecrevisse, le homard. Note also: la m´eduse (as in G´ericault’s Le radeau de la M´eduse), le poulpe. The following is a disparate group of nouns related to fauna that are not classified, except according to gender. Masculine: alligator, anaconda, blaireau, boa, ca¨ıman, cam´el´eon, castor (beaver),9 cobra, crapaud, crocodile, crotale (rattlesnake),10 escargot, faune (a mythical creature not to be confused with 9
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Sartre refers picturesquely to Simone de Beauvoir, addressing her as mon Castor (see his Lettres a ` mon Castor). Anaconda, boa, cobra and crotale look feminine, but are unquestionably masculine, probably on account of serpent.
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faune = fauna, which is feminine), h´erisson, l´ezard, opossum, papillon, porc´epic, serpent (` a sonnette = rattlesnake). Feminine: araign´ee, belette, couleuvre, grenouille, taupe, vip`ere (as in Mauriac’s Le nœud de vip`eres). Insects provide difficulty as well, including the word insecte, which is masculine. Masculine: bourdon, bousier (dung beetle), cafard, cloporte, col´eopt`ere (class of beetles; has a technical resonance), colimac¸on, criquet, frelon, grillon, mille-pattes, mouche (ts´e-ts´e), moucheron, moustique, papillon, perce-oreille, scarab´ee (looks feminine but is masculine), ts´e-ts´e, vers, vers luisant. Feminine: abeille, araign´ee, blatte, chenille, cigale, coccinelle, fourmi, libellule, limace, luciole, mante religieuse, mite, mouche, puce, punaise, sangsue, sauterelle, tarentule, teigne, tipule, veuve noire. There is no guiding principle here for the uninitiated regarding the gender of flowers and what are considered weeds. Suffice it to list the flowers according to gender. Masculine: b´egonia, bleuet, bouton d’or, cactus, cam´elia (as in Alexandre Dumas fils’s La dame aux cam´elias, which is less well-known than Verdi’s La traviata that it inspired), chardon, coucou, coquelicot, crocus, dahlia, forsythia, fuchsia, g´eranium, gla¨ıeul, hibiscus, hortensia, iris, jacaranda, jonc, lierre, lupin, lys (as in Balzac’s Le lys dans la vall´ee), magnolia, muguet (bought in the streets of Belgium and France on May Day), myosotis, narcisse, n´enuphar (as in Monet’s Les n´enuphars), œillet, pavot, perce-neige, p´etunia, pissenlit, pois de senteur, rhododendron, roseau, s´enec¸on (a very common weed = groundsel), souci, tournesol (as in Les tournesols by Van Gogh). Feminine: an´emone (as in Claude Monet’s An´emones), azal´ee, belladone, bougainvill´ee (also: bougainvillier, which is masculine and is increasingly used to the detriment of its feminine counterpart; this noun derives from the French eighteenth-century explorer Bougainville), bruy`ere, campanule, cl´ematite, digitale, ´eglantine, gentiane, glycine, jacinthe, jonquille, marguerite (daisy, as in the slightly old-fashioned effeuiller la marguerite: Il/Elle m’aime, un peu, beaucoup, ` la folie, pas du tout = She/He loves me, she/he loves me not, etc., passionn´ement, a recalling a similar activity with dandelion seeds), orchid´ee, ortie, pˆ aquerette, pens´ee, pervenche, pivoine, primev`ere, renoncule, rose (as in Ronsard’s extremely ` Cassandre, quoted in general conversation, but here well-known poem, Ode a quoted in the original: “Mignonne, allons voir si la rose qui ce matin avait d´eeclose . . . ”), tulipe (recalls Alexandre Dumas’s novel La tulipe noire), violette. Heavenly bodies (corps c´elestes: ´etoiles, plan`etes, constellations) are traditionally masculine, and the uninformed would doubtless always opt for the masculine. Yet the word plan`ete (i.e., Mars, V´enus, Saturne – as in Goya’s Saturne d´evorant ses enfants – Pluton, etc.) is feminine, which explains why the ` Mars un orbe author/astrophysicist Jean-Pierre Luminet writes: “d’offrir a plus harmonieux et plus digne d’elle” (2008a, p. 340). The same author is consistent here: “Mars la rouge” (2008b, p. 38). In keeping with this feminine idea, Grevisse quotes: “Saturne est environn´ee de dix satellites.” In contrast: “Vu au t´el´escope, Jupiter montre [ . . . ] Mars est envelopp´e d’une atmosph`ere” (2008, p. 596). However, heavenly bodies are of necessity feminine when they
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Appendix The following section on differing genders in French and Spanish will be of specific interest to students and professors whose study commitments take them beyond French and into Spanish. The preceding sections include the occasional reference to contrasting genders in French and Spanish, and even Italian, when there exists a close resemblance in the spelling of nouns in these different languages, and when the meaning is the same or similar. Since the study of modern languages frequently brings together the combination of French and Spanish, it seems helpful to highlight in a systematic manner the different genders in the two languages so as to avoid confusion, and experience shows that confusion there often is. As a simple example, the French agenda could easily be incorrectly considered a feminine noun if this same word is first seen in Spanish where it is feminine. There follow two lists. The first (1) covers French nouns of masculine gender contrasting with Spanish nouns of feminine gender. The second (2) covers French nouns of feminine gender contrasting with Spanish nouns of masculine gender. In all cases, the French noun precedes the Spanish noun, which appears in parentheses and italics. Some translations into English are provided for clarity’s sake. ˆge (edad), agenda (agenda), avantage (ventaja), b´egonia 1. affront (afrenta), a (begonia), boa (boa), calme (calma), cano¨e (canoa), chiffre (cifra), cidre (sidra), courant (i.e., electric current, draft = corriente), dahlia (dalia), d´elice (delicia), d´esavantage (desventaja), diab`ete (diabetes), dioc`ese (di´ocesis), doute (duda), ´epi (espiga), fiel (bile = hiel), flegme (flema), gardenia (gardenia), gemme (gema), hectare (hect´ area), javelot (jabalina), lait (leche), larynx (laringe), l´egume (legumbre), li`evre (hare = liebre), lierre (ivy = hiedra), lilas (lila), masque (m´ ascara), massacre (masacre; this Spanish noun is just occasionally used in the masculine), m´emoires (memorias), miel (miel), mimosa (mimosa), moral (state of mind, morale = moral), morse (walruss = morsa), ongle (u˜ na), op´era (´opera), orchestre (orquesta), paradoxe (paradoja), p´etunia (petunia), pharynx (faringe), phoque (seal = foca), printemps (primavera), ressac (backwash = resaca), sang (sangre), sel (sal), serpent (serpiente), si`ege (sede, as in le si`ege ´episcopal), ulc`ere (´ ulcera), z`ebre (cebra), le zona (shingles, i.e., on the body = la zona) 2. affection (afecto), ambiance (ambiente), analyse (an´ alisis), annonce (anuncio), ardeur (ardor), archives (archivos), armoire (armario), attaque (ataque),
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auberge (albergue), avance (avance), banque (banco), boxe (boxeo), broche (broche), candeur (candor), cartouche (cartucho), c´er´eale (cereal), chaleur (calor), clameur (clamor), com`ete (comet = cometa), contagion (contagio), contrebande (contrabando), couleur (color), croisi`ere (cruise = crucero), datte (d´ atil), dent (diente), dict´ee (dictado), digue (dique), douleur (dolor), ´eclipse (eclipse), ´ecritoire (writing case containing materials for writing), emphase (´enfasis), enclave (enclave), ´enigme (enigma), ´epaisseur (espesor), ´equipe (equipo), erreur (error), extase (´extasis), faveur (favor), ferveur (fervor), figue (higo), fin (fin), fraude (fraude), fresque (fresco), frise (in architecture = friso), fum´ee (humo), fureur (furor), grosseur (grosor), la Guadiana (el Guadiana, river in Spain), horloge (reloj), horreur (horror), humeur (mood, and not to be confused with humour, which is masculine; humor in Spanish covers both the idea of mood and that of humor), idole (´ıdolo), idylle (idilio), insulte (insulto), jacinthe (hyacinth = jacinto), langueur (langor), l`evre (labio), limite (limite), liqueur (licor), mangue (mango), mappemonde (mapamundi), mer (mar), municipalit´e (municipio), nacre (mother of pearl = n´ acar), oasis (oasis), panique (p´ anico), papaut´e (papado), parent´e (family relationship = parentesco), pens´ee (pensamiento – both the flower and the thought), plan`ete (planeta), pommette (p´omulo), pudeur (pudor), Pyr´en´ees (Pirineos), rame (remo), rire (risa), salut (greetings but salud in Spanish = health), saveur (sabor), sentinelle (centinela), splendeur (esplendor), stupeur (estupor), sueur (sudor), terreur (terror), thermos (termos), tomate ([jito]mate), torpeur (torpor), torpille (torpedo), tulipe (tulip´ an), valeur (valor), vall´ee (valle), valse (vals), vapeur (vapor), vid´eo (v´ıdeo), vigueur (vigor), vodka (vodka) One striking pattern emerges from this second group. The –or Spanish masculine ending corresponds to the French feminine ending –eur. This difference features in more than twenty nouns listed above. But there must be more. All these nouns derive from Latin masculine nouns ending in –or/–oris. How the Latin masculine dolor, along with all the other nouns in this group, leads to a feminine gender in French is not clear. Exceptionally in this context, the French honneur and the Spanish honor are both masculine. One further source of confusion: labour (ploughing) is masculine as is its doublet labeur (work = little used, and therefore R3) but the Spanish labor (work), is feminine. Interestingly enough, Italian nouns ending in –ore are masculine, which makes the French feminine ending –eur even more anomalous: (l’)ardore/onore, (il) calore/fervore/furore/valore/vapore/vigore, lo splendore, etc. Letters are also masculine in French and feminine in Spanish. Makes of automobiles are feminine in French (on analogy with une voiture) and masculine in Spanish (on analogy with un coche). Makes of watches are feminine in French (une montre) and masculine in Spanish (un reloj).
10 Number (singular and plural) / Le nombre (singulier et pluriel)1 Below is a passage describing some of the attractive aspects of Paris, starting with Lutetia (the original settlement on the river Seine) and its amphitheater, moving on to some of France’s illustrious painters whose names stay in the singular since they refer to paintings, and then to its buildings of social and architectural interest. Of linguistic note, and in contrast to English singular nouns, are a number of simple and compound plurals. Information can be plural in French, as opposed to English, where the same word is uncountable. One observes the collective noun quarantaine followed by a singular verb, although it could just as well, and more commonly, be followed by a plural verb: attendent. Bourbon could end in an s. Terre-pleins as a plural seems an oddity. At a more basic level, the singular nouns ending in –al assume an –aux ending for their plural. ` mille et une facettes Paris a Les m´ edias diffusent toutes sortes d’informations sur la capitale politique, administrative, culturelle et intellectuelle de la France. L’ancienne Lut`ece offre des contrastes saisissants que chacun devrait ˆtre galloexp´erimenter. Les Ar`enes de Lut`ece sont le seul amphith´ea ` Paris. Lors des mauvaises intemp´ romain visible a eries, nous pouvons jouir d’un bon nombre d’activit´es pour appr´ecier les Chagall, les Picasso, les Monet, les Poussin et bien d’autres peintres g´ eniaux [of genius]. Les bonnes mœurs des Parisiens tournent autour de la fr´equentation ˆtres, des caf´es-concerts et des caf´ des caf´es-th´ea es litt´ eraires comme le c´el`ebre caf´e de Flore en plein cœur de Saint-Germain-des-Pr´es. Plus loin, une quarantaine de touristes attend pour visiter le fameux Palais Bour` la famille des Bourbon. bon. Ce monument historique a appartenu a ` l’heure actuelle, cet ´edifice abrite l’Assembl´ee nationale o` A u si`egent les d´eput´es franc¸ais. C’est au 8e arrondissement que se trouvent les ´lys´ees, la Place de l’E ´toile avec son Arc de Triomphe et, aux Champs-E alentours, la Place de la Concorde. La Tour Eiffel trˆ one sur quatre 1
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` ses pieds des milliers de touristes. terre-pleins [plinths]. Elle rec¸oit a Des vacanciers avec leurs l´egers bagages traversent la capitale au fil de l’eau en bˆ ateaux-mouches. Bien d’autres beaux monuments, le Palais du Louvre, le Mus´ee d’Orsay, les principaux mus´ees, de nombreux hˆ otels particuliers, notamment sur la Place des Vosges et la Place du Tertre de la Butte Montmartre, illustrent les peintres croquant des portraits de passants ou des paysages pittoresques. L’Op´era Garnier offre des spectacles grandioses. La Cit´e des sciences et de l’industrie appel´ee « La G´eode » s’´etale le long du canal Saint-Martin.
10.1 The formation of plurals The following comments summarize the procedure for the formation of the plural for simple (i.e., non-compound) words: Words ending in –ail add s: ails, chandails, d´etails, ´eventails, s´erails; some words, however, have the plural in –aux: coraux, ´emaux, soupiraux, travaux, vitraux (as in les vitraux de la cath´edrale de Chartres/Notre Dame). The plural of –ail was also aulx but this form is now dated. Bercail (sheepfold) does not have a plural at all in normal usage. One would only see or hear the word in, for instance, Les moutons sont rentr´es au bercail; 2. Most words ending in –al change to –aux (see Chapter 52 on adjectives for a fuller list): amiraux, arsenaux, canaux, c´er´emoniaux, chenaux (channels), chevaux, fanaux ([head]lamp, lantern), fluviaux, g´eniaux, id´eaux, ill´egaux, l´egaux, imm´emoriaux (as in depuis des temps imm´emoriaux), moraux, rivaux, royaux, signaux, sociaux, sp´eciaux. But the plural of final is finals or finaux, although some uneasiness is felt here over both these words. Other possibilities to replace these two adjectives are: d´efinitifs, derniers, ultimes. The feminine plural of adjectives ending in –al is –ales: g´eniales, rivales, royales, sociales, sp´eciales. Some words ending in –al take –als in the plural: bals, banals, carnavals, chacals, ´etals ([market] stalls), fatals, festivals, navals (as in chantiers navals), r´ecitals; banaux also exists, although it is out-of-date. Certain terms like fatals provoke serious hesitation with French speakers, largely because they are little used, and, in the case of fatals, the words mortels or fatidiques come more readily to mind: des coups mortels, des ´ev´enements/jours fatidiques, l’ˆ age fatidique. Hesitation even occurs over adjectives like g´enial in the masculine plural since, as with many adjectives with the –al ending, the plural ending –aux simply sounds different from the singular ending. On the other hand, the feminine plural sounds the same as the singular forms (masculine and feminine). Dictionaries and grammars offer the plural of r´egal (delight) as r´egals but such usage is so rare it is non-existent. One would only, and regularly, see and hear it in the
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singular, for example: C’est un vrai r´egal; Le spectacle/repas fut un v´eritable r´egal. Dictionaries offer the plural of arcane words such as aval(s), cal(s), pal(s) but such terms attract the following comments: nowadays, one only sees and hears en aval du village (downstream from the village); donner ` (to give an endorsement to); cals means calluses on the hands son aval a (not that this would be recognized by the average French speaker), and the standard term these days is durillons; pals means impalements but empalement has entirely replaced it, while the plural of cal holds little sense, and it is difficult to see even the current word in the plural. One could wonder why the expected form –als is often –aux. The development from Latin provides the answer. The ll in bellus, for instance, slowly turned into a y (yod), and thence into the sound o, as in eau (i.e., from what the French call l mouill´e [dark l] to an o). This can happen in English, with wild/world for example; Words ending in –au/–eau add an x: beaux, berceaux, bouleaux (birch trees), bourreaux (as in les bourreaux de l’Inquisition), boyaux (bowels), bureaux, cerveaux (as in Copernic, Gallil´ee, Michel-Ange sont de grands cerveaux de la Renaissance), eaux, escabeaux, hameaux, louveteaux (cubs, and this includes the small boys’ association), manteaux (as in les manteaux sont au vestiaire), mat´eriaux (as in le bois et le fer sont des mat´eriaux tr`es utilis´es), noyaux, sceaux (seal as in les sceaux du roi), seaux; but sarraus (smock, once commonly used by primary school children in France) and landaus (the common term for baby carriage/pram); Words ending in –eu add an x: cheveux, feux; but: bleus, pneus; Words ending in –ou add an s: clous, cous, fous, H/hindous, matous, mous, nounous, sous, trous, Z/zoulous; but seven words take an x here: bijoux, cailloux, choux, genoux, hiboux, joujoux, poux; Words ending in –s, –x or –z do not change: amas, bois, cassis, gras, gris, gros, impr´ecis, ind´ecis, mas, mois, paradis, pr´ecis, tas, tous, creux, index, perdrix, preux (out-of-date and has historical and literary connotations: un preux chevalier), Sioux, vitreux, croix, doux, houx, roux, nez. The feminine plural of some adjectives ending in –s changes to –sses: grasses, grosses. Others end in –ses: grises, ind´ecises, pr´ecises. The feminine plural of adjectives ending in –x changes to –ses: creuses, douces, vitreuses; but roux > rousses. One cannot imagine a feminine plural form of preux with the ending –euses; All other nouns add an s: amis, hommes, femmes, langues. All other adjectives (masculine and feminine) end thus: vert/verts/verte/vertes, noir/noirs/noire/noires, bleu/bleus/bleue/bleues; A very small number of words have two plural forms: a¨ıeul > a¨ıeuls/ a¨ıeux = grandparents – a¨ıeuls = (male and female) ancestors and a¨ıeules = grandmothers or female ancestors; ciel > cieux = skies, heavens (general, collective and common term), as in “Notre P`ere qui ˆetes aux cieux . . . ” (Lord’s Prayer) or aller vers d’autres cieux; ciels is also used in meteorology
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(des ciels orageux) and to describe the top of a four-poster bed (baldaquin); œil has the common and general plural yeux (de lynx); œils also exists in compounds: œils-de-bœuf = small round windows, œils-de-chat = cat’s eyes, œils-de-tigre = tiger’s eyes. An interesting feature of the plural yeux is its pronunciation in combination with quatre, as in the expression entre quatre yeux = between us two. The strong tendency is to add an s, pronounced z, to quatre and to drop the –re of quatre, for euphony’s sake (entre quat’z’ yeux). This pronunciation is difficult to avoid and occurs with most speakers. A kind of liaison dangereuse is in operation here. Liaison only occurs in the plural in the following type of expressions. ` bras Compare le bras ´etendu (no liasion) and les bras ´etendus (liaison) / a ouverts (liaison). Also: un prix ´elev´e (no liaison) and des prix ´elev´es (liaison); With respect to pronunciation, some plural nouns sound quite different from their singular counterpart: cheval/chevaux, bail/baux, fanal/fanaux, mal/maux (see 1 above for more examples). With bœuf and œuf the f is sounded but in the plural the fs disappears in sound; The pluralization of letters functions in the following way: Il manque deux a/i/e/r a ` ce mot (i.e., invariable). Liaison usually takes place here: Mettre les points sur les i (liaison usually takes place here but its omission is possible). Note also des i grecs. Foreign letters can vary: des yods. However, there is a tendency to make these invariable: des delta, des gamma; ` ce chiffre (i.e., The pluralization of numbers: Il manque deux 4/quatre a invariable); When nouns are followed by a complement, the complement may vary: maison de brique/briques, gel´ee de groseille/groseilles, lettre de condol´eance/condol´eances (although according to Grevisse and Goosse the second form is the only acceptable one since 1992), cahier de brouillon/brouillons (the authors above prefer the first), salle de bain/bains (the second seeming to have won the day), salle d’´etude/´etudes, pain d’´epice/´epices; Complements of the verb of the following type vary, although there is a marked preference for the singular: Armelle bondit de rocher en rocher / de rochers en rochers; Pierre allait de porte en porte / de portes en portes; Franc¸oise passait de boutique en boutique / de boutiques en boutiques; Le colporteur allait de maison en maison / de maisons en maisons; Sa voix changeait de moment en moment / de moments en moments; The negatives sans and pas de may be followed by a singular or a plural: Sophie est partie sans livre/livres; Le navire naviguait sous un ciel sans nuage/nuages; La compagnie n’a pas de voiture de location / voitures de location; Les enfants ne trouvaient pas de mot/mots; As far as units of measurement are concerned, usage is as follows: tous les lundis matin, tous les samedis soir; tous les 12 janvier, les 12 et 13 avril; cent kilom`etres-heure, deux ann´ees-lumi`ere;
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16. When several persons are involved with articles of clothing, as in for instance They took their hats off, the second noun is in the singular in French: Ils ont ˆot´e leur chapeau; Toutes les filles ont perdu leur sac (All ` bien des garc¸ons the girls lost their bags); La prof a donn´e une casquette a (The teacher gave hats to lots of boys). If chapeau, sac, casquette were in the plural, the suggestion would be that the persons involved would each have (had) two or more objects; 17. Plural of abridged forms: if the last letter of the word is retained, an s is added: Mmes ( = Mesdames), Mlles ( = Mesdemoiselles). If the last letter is not retained, no s is added: 200 p. ( = pages), 200 000 hab. ( = habitants); 18. In the following type of expressions characterized by metonymy, there is a mixture of singular and plural but the verb is in the plural: Les ` dix-sept heures; Les cinqui`eme sont toujours au seconde ann´ee sont partis a coll`ege. 19. Many nouns have no plural, viewed as a collective idea: a. Names of arts, sciences and sports: la peinture, la litt´erature, la musique, la botanique, le tennis, le football. Peinture, musique and tennis may be used in the plural but with different meanings: peintures = paintings, musiques = different types of music, tennis = sneakers, trainers; b. Names of materials: or, argent, bronze, cuivre, fer. These nouns may be used in the plural with a particular meaning: Le forgeron fac¸onne les fers; On se promenait parmi les bronzes et les marbres (among bronze/marble statues); c. Names of specific qualities: la solitude, la fragilit´e, la gentillesse; d. Names of the senses: le goˆ ut, l’odorat, l’ou¨ıe, le toucher, la vue; e. Names of the cardinal points: le nord, le sud, l’est, l’ouest (order as in English); f. Many infinitives and adjectives used in an abstract manner: le boire et le manger, l’utile et l’agr´eable; 20. Prochain in the sense of fellow creature or one’s neighbor is singular: Il faut aider son prochain. However, semblable, with the same meaning, may be plural: partager le sort de ses semblables; eux et leurs semblables; 21. Many nouns are rarely used in the singular and are frequently used with a limited connotation: accordailles (R3), affres (R3 = torment), agapes (R3), aguets, al´eas (uncertainties, as in les al´eas de la vie / du m´etier), alentours, ambages (as in parler sans ambages), annales, arabesques (as in des arabesques d´elicates), archives, armoiries (as in les armoiries des Rothschild / d’Outremont), arr´erages, arrhes, arri´er´es (arrears in payment, like arr´erages), auspices, babines, bajoues, basques (R3 = flounces, as in les basques d’une robe), bestiaux (cattle; the doublet b´etail which is only singular has a similar meaning but it covers all farm and farmyard animals, while bestiaux covers oxen and cows; this difference is not clear for many French speakers), broussailles, calendes (R3), collat´eraux (collaterals; many French speakers do not understand this term but it is used
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regularly in administrative language, referring to members who are not immediately connected to a family, e.g., uncles and aunts), combles, comices, comics, condol´eances, confins, d´ecombres (rubble), d´egˆ ats (damage, as in Les vents violents ont caus´e beaucoup de d´egˆ ats), d´epenses, ´ebats (frolicking), ´ecrouelles (scrofula), ´emoluments (used in administration, as in recevoir des ´emoluments ´elev´es), entrailles, sur ces entrefaites (at that moment), environs (surrounding area), ´epousailles (R3), ´etrennes (Christmas or New Year’s gift), festivit´es, fianc¸ailles, floralies (flower show), fredaines (amorous adventures), fringues (R1 = clothes), frusques (R1 = clothes), fun´erailles, gens, gravats (rubble; similar to d´ecombres), hardes (R3 = clothes, glad rags), honoraires (as in L’avocat touche ses honoraires), ides (R3), instances (insistence, entreaty, authority), intemp´eries, j´er´emiades (continual complaining, as in Arrˆete tes j´er´emiades !), limbes (limbo), mˆ anes (R3), matines, m´eandres, men´ees, mœurs, nippes (R1), obs`eques (R3 = funeral), oripeaux (tawdry finery = R3, as in des oripeaux d´efraˆıchis), Pˆ aques, parages (neighborhood), p´enates (R3), pleurs (R3), `) ramages (cloth/tablecloth with pr´emisses, pr´eparatifs, proches, (´etoffe/nappe a a floral design), r`egles (menstrual period), remontrances (R3 = reprimand), retrouvailles (reunion), rillettes, royalties, s´evices, thermes, us et coutumes, vˆepres, victuailles, visc`eres, vivats (cheers uttered by a crowd, for instance). Notes on some of the above: Accordailles has the same meaning as fianc¸ailles but is of a higher register, having an old-fashioned but elegant resonance; Affres is used in such expressions as les affres de la faim / mort / de la douleur / de l’humiliation. Flaubert was acquainted with les affres du style, tormented as he was with stylistic perfection; Agapes (meeting of friends, often for a meal): des agapes somptueuses qui furent de v´eritables retrouvailles. This feminine noun has a singular connotation which does not form part of the vocabulary of “Monsieur tout le monde.” In its first and original sense, it referred to a communal meal enjoyed by the early Christians, doubtless recalling the Last Supper (La C`ene), now of Leonardo da Vinci fame; Aguets is usually used in: ˆetre aux aguets Alentours = surrounding area. It has a similar value to environs. Alentour is used, but as an adverb: Sur la photo a´erienne, on voit la ville et la campagne alentour; Ambages occurs in parler sans ambages = to speak straight to the point; Arrhes occurs in verser des arrhes = to pay a deposit; Babines occurs in s’essuyer / se l´echer les babines = to lick one’s chops; Bajoues exists in the dictionary as a singular but it seems only to be used in the plural: Ce clown est drˆole avec ses bajoues; Combles is normally used in the plural for attic, as in sous les combles. It is used metaphorically in the singular: le comble de l’injustice / de la joie / du d´esespoir;
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Comices is used in the plural with the idea of political meeting/gathering for a specific purpose for voting ( = hustings). See also Flaubert’s Madame Bovary, beginning of Chapter 8 where an agricultural fair is expected: “Ils arriv`erent, en effet, ces fameux Comices !”; E´bats is only used in the plural, and has a literary connotation: Le chien prend ses ´ebats dans le jardin = The dog is frolicking in the garden; Honoraires = professional fees, as in les honoraires du m´edecin/notaire, and it is masculine; Ides, as in C´esar fut assassin´e aux ides de mars = (March 15); Les instances, as in Sur les instances de Philippe, je me suis ravis´e (I changed my mind); les instances gouvernementales. Instance has a very restricted use in the singular = legal proceedings. Ils sont en instance de divorce; L’affaire est en instance (pending); J´er´emiades comes from the persistent wailing of the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah; Les intemp´eries is only used in the plural: Elle ´etait expos´ee aux intemp´eries = She was out in the bad weather; Les mˆ anes = household gods, as in Roman times: interroger/invoquer les mˆ anes; M´eandres, as in les m´eandres d’un fleuve, d’un discours/expos´e. The singular exists but is little used; Men´ees = maneuvering, plotting, and is always pejorative: Elle ´etait victime des men´ees de ses concurrents; Mœurs = customs, traditions. The s may or may not be pronounced; Matines and vˆepres refer to religious services in the Christian day = matins, vespers; Pˆ aques is also used in the singular: la Pˆ aque juive/russe = Passover; P´enates = Roman household gods. Used more with the humorous meaning of home, as in regagner ses p´enates; Pleurs is usually found in the expressions ˆetre en pleurs = to be in tears, fondre en pleurs, r´epandre/verser des pleurs = to burst into tears. Larmes is the more common term; Ramages is only used in this way and has a literary connotation. Only those well versed in seventeenth-century literature will have come across ramage in the singular. La Fontaine’s Le corbeau et le renard has it rhyme with plumage; Remontrances is often found in the expression faire des remontrances (` a quelqu’un); Royalties is not really necessary: droits d’auteur is sufficient; Thermes = thermal baths, and it is masculine: les thermes de Caracalla (in Rome), les thermes nationaux d’Aix-les-Bains; Vˆepres appears as Les vˆepres siciliennes by Verdi (this is the original title);
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Visc`eres: abdomen area. Heard in hospitals, and only in the plural, although it exists in the singular. This noun is masculine – source of uncertainty for French speakers. 22. There is a range of nouns referring to john/restroom/lavatory/toilet, and these are almost entirely in the plural. Many of them are naturally of the lower register, and this is indicated: lieux/cabinets d’aisances, latrines, commodit´es, priv´es (R3 = rare now, as is privy in English), goguenots/gogues (R1), chiottes (R1), feuill´ees (used by soldiers) = trench dug by soldiers on a campaign and similar to latrines, bouteilles (used on a boat, largely by officers), toilettes, v´ec´es = WC, waters (w pronounced as in English). Le petit coin is, of course singular. Toilette has a meaning in the singular, as in faire sa toilette = to have a wash; 23. The case of the euro. In 1995, considerable debate was provoked over the plural of euro, the monetary unit. Committees within the European Union would have preferred this noun not to take an s for its plural. In German, Norwegian and Italian, for example, the s is not a mark of the plural. The discussion took place before the admission of other countries such as the Czech Republic and Poland, where the national languages do not admit a plural s either. The controversy overflowed into the arena of the French language where, as Le Bon usage states (2008, p. 682), common sense prevailed, and the s is used in all contexts: euros.
10.2 The plural of compound words (see Chapter 9, Section 9.2.3 on the gender of compound words) Compound words provide a source of perplexity, not just for foreign learners of French, but also for native French speakers. Hesitation abounds, and there seems to be no definitive agreement on a range of issues. What is certain is that compound nouns, once largely confined to special cases, are now burgeoning and are taking on an increasingly functional, and therefore very modern, appearance. This is very similar to the development of Spanish, and less so of Italian. Perhaps the influence of English is being felt here, since English has always been able to combine nouns, the first one performing the role of an adjective. Until the twentieth century, French, Spanish and Italian have been obliged to join two nouns with the insertion of the preposition de. 1.
Unhyphenated words: some compound words are unhyphenated, but not very many. Terms like arcboutants, autocars, autoroutes, bonshommes (but bonhommes = R1), entresols, platebandes, potpourris and portemanteaux simply take an s or x at the end of the whole word, according to the criteria listed above. In the case of autobus, the plural remains the same. These words are very well established in the language. Other terms
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2.
3.
4.
5.
such as gentilshommes, mesdames, mesdemoiselles, messieurs, messeigneurs add an s within the word and at the end. At the same time, one also sees arc-boutants, plates-bandes, pots-pourris (see section immediately below): a perfect illustration of uncertainty in this area; Hyphenated words: noun + noun adds an s or an x to each noun, but there is much uncertainty here since the second noun may be considered invariable if it does not really contain a plural idea, as in dates-limite and facteurs-surprise: bars-tabac, caf´es-concert(s), ˆtre(s), chauves-souris, appartements-t´emoin(s), choux-fleurs, bateauxcaf´es-th´ea mouches, dates-limite(s), facteurs-surprise(s), gardes-barri`ere(s), gardesmalades, gardes-chasse, hommes-grenouille(s), id´ees-clef(s)/force(s), nouveaun´es, prisons-mod`ele(s), portraits-robot(s), prix-folie, sauf-conduits, services apr`es-vente, terre-pleins, villes-dortoir(s). In the case of the element garde, if a person is alluded to, garde takes the plural. But if a verb is meant, the whole expression remains invariable: des garde-boue. Id´eesclef(s)/force(s) are certainly two compound nouns where hesitation abounds, although Grevisse and Goosse offer, for example, only id´eesforces. Nouveau does not take an x in nouveau-n´es since nouveau is really an adverb = nouvellement (see also Chapter 9, Section 9.3.1 for the gender of this word). Nouns neither hyphenated nor joined together: this group is everincreasing, and is found notably in the area of commerce. Some translations are given since many of these terms have only just recently found their way into the language, and would not be listed in any dictionary. Note also that the gender of these compound nouns is determined by the first noun: camions poubelle (dustcarts), camping cars, chaises anti-fatigue, chargeurs d´emarreur(s), chariots garagiste, chariots portetout, coffrets plombier (plumber’s tool boxes), escabeaux acier, housses caravane/fauteuil (covers for caravan/sofa), kits carrossier (kits for body-repair specialist, of automobile), marches pieds (small stands to reach up to something), pantalons treillis (overalls, dungarees), plate-formes´echelle (small stands for reaching an object: see marches pieds above), rallonges aspirateur (extension leads for vacuum cleaner), rasoirs homme, sacs cabas (shopping bags, the idea being that it can be used time and time again), stations service (gas/petrol stations), supports TV (TV stands), tuyaux gaz; Noun + adjective / adjective + noun adds an s to both parts, as would be expected: basses-cours, coffres-forts, ´etats-majors, francs-mac¸ons, franc-tireurs, sages-femmes, plates-bandes. In the case of nouns preceded by grand in the masculine form, the adjective is sometimes invariable in the plural and sometimes not: grands-m`eres/grand-m`eres, grandstantes/grand-tantes but grands-p`eres, grands-oncles are the normal forms; Verb + noun may or may not change, but, logically, only the noun would take an s (see also garde compounds above): garde-manger(s), perceneiges(s), presse-papier(s), s`eche-linge, serre-joints, vide-greniers. In certain
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cases, the singular form often involves a plural noun, and this is particularly so with the verbs garder and porter: garde-malades (garde if the idea is a verb), garde-meubles; uses with porter + plural noun: porteavions, porte-bagages, porte-cigarettes, porte-cl´es/clefs, porte-parapluies, porterevues. The verb porter, like garder, can involve a singular noun: and here invariability obtains: porte-bonheur, porte-monnaie, porte-malheur, porte-parole, porte-plume, porte-serviette. The initial noun ( = door) of portefenˆetre is not be confused with the verb porter: its plural is portes-fenˆetres and note that portefeuille(s) is not hyphenated, and neither is tirelire(s). The use of vider is also worthy of note: vide-grenier (car boot sale) would more easily be seen in the singular, but there is no reason why one should not see vide-greniers; vide-poches (map compartment in car) takes an s; 6. Invariable word + noun usually gives a plural s to the noun: hautparleurs, sous-marins; but if the noun were uncountable it would remain in the singular (see the list verb + noun below); 7. Following on from above, this next list groups together a number of compound nouns of the verb + noun type. Indications are given with respect to the addition of an s for the plural. The s is used if the compound noun is in the singular and the noun is plural (see tire-fesses). If there is no indication, it may be assumed that the noun is invariable (but this is by no means clear-cut), and usually this is because the noun is uncountable. Furthermore, little logic seems to apply to, say, casse-tˆete(s) (chinois), where s is optional, and casse-croˆ ute where, according to de Villers’s MULTI dictionnaire and Le petit Robert, there is no s for the plural. Some translations are given here: accroche-cœurs = spitkiss curl; appuietˆete(s) = head restraint (in car); attrape-mouche(s), attrape-nigaud(s) = booby trap; brise-fer/tout, brise-glace(s), brise-lames, brise-mottes, brise-vent; cassetˆete(s), casse-cou(s), casse-pieds, casse-noisettes, casse-croˆ ute; chasse-mouches, chasse-neige; coupe-l´egumes, coupe-cigares, coupe-circuits, coupe-feu, coupejambon, coupe-papier; couvre-chefs, couvre-pied(s), couvre-feu, couvre-lit(s), couvre-plats; essuie-glace(s), essuie-main(s), essuie-tout, essuie-verre(s); fourretout = holdall, light suitcase, tote bag; gobe-mouche(s) = sucker; gratte-ciel = skyscraper; grippe-sou(s) = greedy person; lave-vaisselle(s) = dish-washer; l`eche-culs = ass-licker; monte-plats = dumb waiter; ouvre-boˆıte(s), ouvrehuˆıtre(s) = tin opener, oyster opener; passe-partout = master key; pince-nez = pince-nez (spectacles held only on the bridge of the nose); serretˆete(s)/livres = hairband / book end; taille-crayon(s) = pencil sharpener; tire-bouchon(s), tire-clou(s), tire-fesses = ski-tow; trompe-l’œil = same word in English and used in art; trouble-fˆetes = spoil sport, as in jouer les trouble-fˆetes; 8. The following list is a small heteroclite bunch of compound nouns that have no formal or systematic grouping. The first compound noun here (all´ees et venues) is naturally always plural: all´ees et venues, allers-retours,
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branle-bas, faire-part, laisser-passer (two verbs), pousse-pousse (two verbs), sous-sols, tape-` a-l’œil, touche-` a-tout, tout-` a-l’´egout, va-et-vient, qu’en dira-t-on; ` flot, as opposed to couler a ` flots. Usage varies with apr`esbut: remettre a midi: not only is its gender variable (see Chapter 9 on gender), but one also sees des apr`es-midi and des apr`es-midis. Pri`ere(s) d’ins´erer (review slip used in the publication of books) takes the s for a plural; 9. Compound adjectives of color are invariable for both number and gender: des robes bleu clair, des chemises jaune clair, des pantalons gris fonc´e, des ´etoffes rouge fonc´e, des carreaux vert jaune, des soies vert pomme, des yeux vert d’eau, des chapeaux bleu vif, des chaussettes bleu vif. Further invariable compounds involving colors or indicating colors are: arc-enciel, bleu ciel/horizon/marin/roi/turquoise/vert, caf´e au lait, gorge de pigeon, gris acier/perle, jaune ma¨ıs, noir de jais, rouge tomate, vert amande/olive, vert-de-gris: des ´echarpes gris perle, des nappes bleu turquoise, une teinte rose fan´e. Notice the difference with tendre: des vˆetements vert tendre = soft green clothes, as against des haricots verts tr`es tendres = very tender green haricot beans. There are also a great number of nouns which, when used as a color, remain invariable, both in gender and in number, and some of which occur in the list above. All these colors come from the world of nature: abricot, acajou, agate, ambre, am´ethyste, ardoise, argent, aubergine, avocat, azur, bistre, bordeaux, brique, bronze, bruy`ere, cachou, caf´e, canari, cannelle, caramel, carmin, carotte, cassis, chamois, cerise, champagne, chocolat, ciel, citron, cl´ementine, cognac, coquelicot, corail, cr`eme, crevette, cuivre, ´eb`ene, ´emeraude, ´epinard, fraise, framboise, grenat, groseille, indigo, ivoire, jade, jonquille, kaki, lavande, lilas, magenta, marengo, marine, marron, mastic, moutarde, nacre, noisette, ocre, olive, or, orange, paille, pastel, past`eque, pˆeche, pervenche, p´etrole, pie, pistache, platine, prune, r´es´eda, rouille, rubis, safran, saphir, saumon, s´epia, serin, soufre, souris, tabac, tango, tilleul, tomate, topaze, turquoise, vermillon; des tapis ardoise, des ombrelles jonquille, des cartes orange, but des soies orang´ees since orang´e functions adjectivally as a color like bleu or vert; des cailloux argent, des chandeliers or; 10. Numbers: 80 = quatre-vingts (with s), but 81 = quatre-vingt-un; 200 = deux cents, 300 = trois cents, but 201 = deux cent un, 301 = trois cent un; 2 000 = deux mille (never s). Note in athletics: le cent m`etres, le deux cents m`etres, le quatre cents m`etres. In the expression faire les trois huit (to work on a rota system, i.e., round the clock), the huit takes no s
10.3 The plural of foreign words (see also Chapter 66 on foreign words for a much fuller list covering numerous countries and languages) As far as English words adopted by French are concerned, problems occur where English and French plural-forming patterns diverge. However, those who have a reasonable knowledge of English tend to use authentic English plurals; consequently, R2 users would opt for
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des boxes/coaches/flashes/matches/sandwiches/smashes (in tennis)/sketches/ lobbies/ tories/rugbymen/tennismen (the last two being false Anglicisms), whereas R1 users would doubtless opt for des box/coachs/flashs/matchs/sandwichs/smashs. Where the plural patterns are the same, no difficulty arises: des scoops/sexshops. It should be noted that this distinction is masked in speech for those words ending in –(e)s, as the –(e)s is not pronounced in any case. Even so, there are still anomalous forms of English plurals created in French: des pin-up (without s), and both m´edia and m´edias occur as plural forms. Of course, the only true Latin word here is media (neuter plural), so French follows a false trail with m´edias. Usually, a well-established foreign word, which may well have lost some of its foreign appearance, conforms to the French pattern by simply adding s to form the plural: des biftecks/bol´eros/panoramas/r´ef´erendums. Some, on the other hand, remain invariable, and this applies especially to words of Latin origin: des amen/forum/lapsus/veto (pronounced ´ e but with no written accent), although one says and writes un agenda/des agendas. With addendum and erratum (neuter singular), there is some confusion, or at least failure to recognize the Latin plurals: addenda and errata. One therefore reads both addenda and ` inclure dans le contrat; addendas, like m´edia and m´edias: Il y a plusieurs addenda a Un addenda a ´et´e ajout´e. As for erratum, one rarely sees this singular form, so that one normally comes across faire un errata / des erratas. Italian has no s for the plural forms, but instead uses i or e: des broccoli/ concerti/confetti/graffiti (also du graffiti) /macaroni/ravioli/spaghetti/tagliatelli. Consequently, any verb with these nouns as subject should be in the plural, at least according to French authorities: Ces graffiti sont obsc`enes; Les spaghetti sont cuits ? De Villers, however, pleads for an s in order to conform to a French plural model, although this appears absurd: Les broccolis/spaghettis/macaronis sont prˆets. These Italian plural forms are nearly always countable in French, although they are not in English: The spaghetti is ready. But one says and writes: du broc(c)oli. Both du vermicelle and des vermicelles exist at the same level of discourse, although, of course, the plural vermicelli is the Italian form: J’ai pris un potage avec du vermicelle / des vermicelles. Prima donna remains invariable in the plural in French, although in Italian one would say prime donne. Use of a foreign word is the true mark of a well-informed speaker, or is simply an affected way of expressing oneself. A person likes to show that (s)he can handle Italian plurals, and music lovers are often in this situation: des concertos/concerti, des scenarios/scenarii, des sopranos/soprani. (The Italian forms soprano/soprani are oddities in themselves, the o and i being marks of Italian masculine forms, as opposed to the feminine a and e).
10.4 The plural of proper names Generally, proper names are invariable in the plural: les Dupont, les Morand, les Lano¨e; Les Dupont ont achet´e deux Buick/Peugeot; Plusieurs Airbus sont retenus ` l’a´eroport de Roissy, Charles de Gaulle; les deux sur le tarmac (English word) a
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Angleterre, la protestante et la catholique. With regard to the names of certain famous families, –s is added in the plural (but agreement as to the degree of fame necessary before such an honor is conferred upon proper names is not clear): les C´esars, les Borgias, les M´edicis, les Rockefellers, les Bourbons, les Cond´es, les Stuarts. Certain geographical names have –s in the plural: les Abruzzes (Italy), les Ac¸ores (in the Atlantic), les Andes, les Ardennes (also: l’Ardenne in France/Belgium), les Asturies (Spain), les Am´eriques, les Cornouailles (in the southwest of England), les ´ Emirats Arabes Unis, les Guyanes, les Flandres (also la ´tats-Unis, les Canaries, les Indes (also l’Inde), les Flandre) (France/Belgium), les E Carpates, les Bal´eares, les Comores, les Antilles, les Pyr´en´ees, les Rocheuses (Rockies), les Vosges (France), les Territoires Palestiniens, les ˆıles du Pacifique, les Philippines, les Bahamas. When an artist’s name is applied to his/her paintings, or a film director’s to a film, and so on, usage varies, but normally no –s is used: J’ai vu bon nombre de Monet au Louvre; Jeanne a achet´e trois Colette chez le bouquiniste; Deux ` la t´el´evision ce week-end; La soprano a chant´e dans Bu˜ nuel/Almod´ovar passent a plusieurs Carmen.
10.5 Singular/plural subjects with singular/plural verbs According to the strict rules of grammar, subject and verb agree in number, but usage varies considerably, since frequently a singular noun implies a plural idea, just as police and government for instance do in English: The government say/says; The police has/have released a statement. In the following cases, logic requires a plural verb while the grammarian purist would doubtless plead for a singular. What is certain is that the singular verb indicates a high register, and a plural verb points to a standard register (R2) recognized, and used much more easily, by “Monsieur tout le monde.” A further criterion determining the singular or plural of the verb lies in the insistence or otherwise on the singular collective idea or the plurality of objects or persons. The collective singular would decide a singular verb, whereas the plurality of objects or persons would lead to a plural verb. Beyond all this discussion one simple fact stands out: grammarians like to theorize on this topic but, in reality, there is little or no difference between singular and plural verb. Below is a list of singular nouns followed by a plural noun and the concomitant singular or plural verb; some comments are also added: Le tiers/quart des ´el`eves est arriv´e (R3) / sont arriv´es (R2) trop tard. If la moiti´e is followed by a singular verb, in a higher register, the past participle should agree here: La moiti´e des ´el`eves est arriv´ee trop tard (R3). A problem arises when the noun following les trois quarts is feminine. This focuses on the whole problem of agreements: Les trois quarts des voitures ont ´et´e endommag´ees or Les trois quarts des voitures ont ´et´e endommag´es. Obviously,
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there is no problem over a plural agreement with les trois quarts, since a plural noun is used. If the noun such as moiti´e or tiers is not followed by a plural noun, a singular verb is required. Speaking of her Jewish subjects and their persecution, Isabel the Catholic of Spain says (and this is a translation): Un tiers se convertira, un tiers partira, un tiers p´erira. A further problem of agreement in gender appears with une/la quarantaine if the verb agrees with quarantaine and not the following noun, and this of course in a higher register: Une quarantaine de touristes est venue ce matin pour visiter la Tour Eiffel; in a slightly lower register (still R2), no difficulty occurs: Une quarantaine de touristes sont venus ce matin pour visiter la Tour Eiffel. Les cinq pour cent des ´etudiantes sont Japonaises but, in a lower, colloquial register one could hear Le cinq pour cent des ´etudiantes sont Japonaises. Bon nombre de professeurs ont donn´e (R2) / a donn´e (R3) des cours suppl´ementaires. Un groupe de jeunes sont accourus (R2) / est accouru (R3) / ont accouru / a accouru (R3) vers les bless´es. Une bonne partie des bˆatiments se sont effondr´es (R2) / s’est effondr´ee (R3). The problem of agreement is highlighted again here since, if the past participle is determined by the plural bˆ atiments, it would take an s, but if the past participle depends upon une bonne partie it would take an e. Une troupe de militaires envahit/envahirent la ville Cette s´erie d’oublis aura/auront ´et´e catastrophique(s). Une ribambelle d’enfants a/ont travers´e le parc (ribambelle is often used with enfants, doubtless because of its origin in bambins, from the Italian bambini). Une suite/succession/s´erie d’´ev´enements qui l’a/ont profond´ement marqu´e. Toute une flop´ee de gamins, accompagn´es de leurs institutrices, est entr´ee / sont entr´es chez Macdo. Un lot de tableaux anciens sera propos´e / seront propos´es. Une kyrielle d’informations / de demandes nous a/ont innond´es. If the collective noun is not followed by a noun in the plural, the verb can easily be placed in the plural: La moiti´e / Le tiers sont venu(e)s. The following noun is understood. La plupart + plural noun is normally followed by a plural verb, and there is agreement with the following noun: La plupart des piscines sont ferm´ees le lundi. La plupart is only ever followed by a singular noun, at least in normal discourse, when it is followed by temps: la plupart du temps. La plus grande partie, in conjunction with a singular noun, is used in its place: La plus grande partie du beurre/fromage est abˆım´e. Usage differs between French and English: sometimes a singular noun in English is conveyed by a plural in French: les agressions = aggression; dans les airs (R3) = in the air; les al´eas (hazards); les algues = seaweed; les
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A Reference Grammar of French applaudissements = applause; les ar`enes = arena (as in Les ar`enes de V´erone/B´eziers/Nˆımes); les bagages = baggage/luggage; les buts = goal (the place); les grandes chaleurs = period(s) of intense heat (The deadliest period of the plague in Camus’s La peste occurs understandably during les grandes chaleurs); les grands froids = periods(s) of intense cold; les combles = attic (as in Puccini’s La ` ses cˆot´es = at her/his side; les couverts = cutlery, placings; les crampes = Boh`eme); a bouts of cramp; des cris = shouting; les eaux (R3) = water(s); les embruns = spray (from water); les ench`eres = auction; les ´equipements = equipment; les fianc¸ailles = engagement; les Finances = the Treasury (Department, Ministry of Finance), les floralies = flower show; les forces = strength; les fun´erailles = funeral (see obs`eques below); des d´emangeaisons = itching; les informations = the (pieces of) information, news (on media); les intemp´eries = bad weather; les int´erˆets = interest (financial); les labours (R3) = ploughed land; les manigances (shady dealing); les neiges (R3) = snow; les nuisances = (environmental) nuisance; les obs`eques = funeral (see fun´erailles above); des pluies passag`eres = (patchy) rain; les pompes fun`ebres (undertaker’s); les pr´ecipitations = rainfall/precipitation; faire des progr`es = to make progress; avoir des remords = to feel remorse; faire des r´evisions = to revise, to do revision; les rhumatismes = rheumatism; les s´evices sexuels = sexual abuse; les t´en`ebres (R3) = darkness; les violences = violence; les tractations = dealings. Une agression = a single act of aggression; Air is perfectly common in the singular. It refers to the air we breathe: L’air est vici´e; le fond de l’air est vif. It is also used in l’arm´ee de l’air, voyager par air et par mer; Applaudissements exists in the singular but it is usually figurative. Compare Sous les applaudissements du public, la diva est entr´ee sur sc`ene / Des applaudissements ont ´eclat´e and Le livre rec¸ut l’applaudissement de la critique; Ar`enes occurs in the singular but here it is usually figurative. Compare Les ar`enes de V´erone (Italy) / d’Arles / de Nˆımes and l’ar`ene politique / descendre dans l’ar`ene (as a defiant gesture, for instance). Ar`enes occurs in the plural form for bull fighting: les ar`enes de B´eziers/Dax/Madrid/Mexico; But in the singular = aim, goal, target (i.e., figurative). Used in the plural = Pierre est d´efenseur et Jean est dans les buts (is the goalkeeper); It goes without saying that chaleur has a normal equivalent (heat); similarly froid = cold; Comble is used regularly in the singular = the highest point: le comble du malheur / de la joie. It is also used as an adjective: une salle comble = a packed room; ` l’estomac / ` la jambe / a Crampe is also used in the singular: avoir une crampe a au mollet; D´emangeaisons is almost always used in the plural: avoir des d´emangeaisons; ces d´emangeaisons sont insupportables. The singular exists in the dictionary but is rarely used in common discourse, even as a concept;
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Eau also exists and is used more than eaux in daily discourse. Compare ` l’eau / une goutte d’eau / de l’eau de mer and Boire de l’eau / tomber a les eaux de source tr`es pures / prendre les eaux / une ville d’eaux / les eaux territoriales; Ench`ere exists in the singular: faire une ench`ere = to make a (higher) bid; ´quipements corresponds to facilities for a group of people, whereas E ´equipement in the singular suggests equipment used for something, a sport, for example. Compare les ´equipements portuaires/collectifs (here for a town/village) and l’´equipement de chasse/de pˆeche/de ski/de tennis, l’´equipement du gymnase; Forces is often used as in Les forces arm´ees du Canada, whereas in the singular it refers to the specific strength of someone/something: la force du boxeur/du vent/d’une entreprise; Ils ont employ´e la force; Les informations and l’information are clearly distinguished. Although they both mean information, which is of course uncountable in English, the plural form means news, as on the radio/television, and in this meaning it is often referred to in colloquial style as les infos. Thus one listens to des informations politiques/sportives, while the singular is used thus: une information officielle (an official piece of information); Int´erˆet has the singular meaning of the English interest: ´ecouter avec int´erˆet, as opposed to the plural: int´erˆets bancaires (bank interest); Labour in the singular = ploughing; Neiges is used in such expressions as les neiges de l’hiver / les neiges ´eternelles, while in the singular it occurs in daily discourse: un bonhomme / une boule / une chute de neige; Pr´ecipitations is a meteorological term: On annonce d’importantes pr´ecipitations, while the singular = haste: agir avec pr´ecipitation; Progr`es is very common in the expression already noted above, i.e., faire des progr`es, and in the singular it is often metaphoric: le progr`es scientifique, croire au progr`es, although it is quite possible to say les progr`es de la science; Remords in the singular often refers to the concept: Je ne crois pas au remords, as opposed to le remords d’avoir offens´e la m`ere sup´erieure / son sup´erieur; R´evisions is often used in an examination context: r´evisions d’histoire / d’anglais. In the singular it refers to the going through, or checking over, of something like a vehicule or a policy: la r´evision de la constitution / d’une doctrine politique / d’un v´ehicule; T´en`ebres is only used in the plural: les t´en`ebres d’un cachot / de la mort, le prince des t´en`ebres (prince of darkness = Satan); Tractations is often used in tractations politiques; Violence also occurs in the singular, as in La violence est partout, et surtout la nuit, as opposed to une flamb´ee de violences urbaines; Cette femme a subi des violences; Les populations g´eorgiennes ont ´et´e victimes de violences;
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A small list of nouns that are nearly always used in the plural as opposed to their English equivalent in the singular comprises the following, all meaning gossip. They are all masculine: bavardages, cancans, comm´erages, potins, racontars, ragots. Of all these nouns, the last suggests more clearly malicious gossip. Un potin/comm´erage could mean a piece of gossip. Bavardage in the singular means chattering, as in L’´el`eve a ´et´e puni pour bavardage. Conversely, sometimes a plural in English is conveyed by a singular in French: le bermuda = Bermuda shorts; la bouche = lips (sometimes); du changement = changes; le collant = tights; le dimanche = on Sundays; ˆetre dans son droit = to be within one’s rights; le g´en´erique = credits (for film, play etc.); italique = italics; un jean = jeans; le pantalon = pants, trousers; la pince = pincers; le pyjama = pyjamas; rencontrer le regard de quelqu’un = to meet someone’s eye; le s´ecateur = secators; le short = shorts; le slip = (under)pants; la troupe = troops. ` la maison, apporter un changement a ` un Changement: Il y eu du changement a texte, un changement de direction; Dimanche: Je ne travaille pas le dimanche = I don’t work on Sundays; Italique does have a plural form (italiques), but it is little used. Thus one really only sees: Tu mets le titre de ce livre en italique; Jean is also written jeans, and even blue-jean(s) but the first form is the most common: Marie-No¨elle porte un jean/jeans, Elle est en jean/jeans. Note that the j of this word is pronounced dj; Apart from the plural form (Tu as des pinces pour serrer un boulon ? / saisir ` linge = clothes avec des pinces), pince is commonly used in une pince a peg. Similarly: tenailles, cisailles, ciseaux, castagnettes, coulisses, guillemets, halles. These may be singular or plural. Obviously castagnettes would be used much more in the plural: Elle chante et danse avec des castagnettes / au son des castagnettes; une paire de castagnettes. But perdre une castagnette is perfectly possible. Again, fermer/ouvrir les guillemets is a standard expression but there is no reason why one should not say Tu as omis le guillemet ` la fin de la phrase; a Ciseau is not uncommon in the meaning of scissors. It is probably of a lower register in the singular, depending on context and even dialect; Halles in the plural is particularly well-know in les Halles de Paris / de ` Grenoble. Halle in the singular = market hall; Sainte-Claire a Troupe has the plural form troupes and both are commonly used: une troupe de l´egionnaires, des troupes de choc/d´ebarquement; Following on from les droits de l’homme (human rights), the French say les droits de la femme (women’s rights), i.e., femme = singular / women = plural. Many apparent plurals in English have a corresponding singular term in French:
Number la bureautique le diab`ete la dialectique la dynamique l’´economie l’eug´enique la linguistique la m´ecanique
173 office automation diabetes dialectics dynamics economics eugenics linguistics mechanics, engineering
l’optique la physique la pol´emique la politique la statistique la g´en´etique la tactique la robotique
optics physics polemics politics statistics genetics tactics robotics
La bureautique does not have a corresponding English plural; La statistique differs from les statistiques in that the first term is a collective idea or a concept/discipline, as in le Bureau de la statistique or la statistique descriptive/math´ematique, while the second term suggests a series, or a number: Mme la directrice nous propose des statistiques sur les importations; The most important exception to this list is les math´ematiques/math(s) (R1); To be added to this group is the interchangeability of moustache/ moustaches: Le policier a une grosse moustache noire / de grosses moustaches noires; Noteworthy also is the didactic word la ma¨ıeutique (maieutics), which educationalists would know. A teaching technique first proposed by Socrates, appropriately son of a midwife, it suggests the drawing out of information from the student rather than offering ready-made information. See also Chapter 9, Section 9.6.1 on the term ma¨ıeuticien. In French, certain words have a singular–plural duality, unlike their English equivalents: la drogue les drogues le/un fruit les/des fruits un pain des pains du pain un raisin des raisins du raisin un grain de raisin la recherche les recherches une statistique des statistiques un toast des toasts une musique
drugs (narcotics) drugs (medication) the/a piece of fruit, some fruit fruit (different types of) loaf (of bread) loaves, different types of bread (some) bread (type of) grape (different types of) grapes grapes (an individual) grape (practice of) research, searching (for) (detailed) research (single set of) statistics (series of) statistiques ` quelqu’un (a slice of) toast, toast, as in porter un toast a some toast, some slices of toast a piece of music
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des musiques de la musique la musique
pieces of music, different types of music some music music (the concept as well as the activity)
Fruit in French is not preceded by the singular partitive article du; this is different from raisin = some grapes, where one says du raisin; La recherche is also used in the search for someone or something: La ` la recherche ` la recherche de ses clefs; A recherche de l’enfant perdu; Jeanne est a du temps perdu (Proust); Musique: Voici une musique qui te plaira; Leur fille compose de la musique; Mes musiques pr´ef´er´ees sont la neuvi`eme symphonie de Beethoven, la cinqui`eme symphonie de Mahler et tous les op´eras de Verdi; J’adore la musique, surtout celle de Mozart et de Berlioz. One or two other nouns have a different meaning in the plural in contrast to the singular: le devoir = duty > le devoir conjugal; les devoirs = usually homework but also different kinds of obligations; l’enfer = hell > les enfers = the underworld; la police = the police, la police de caract`eres = font (in typing) > les polices = the police forces (i.e., different ones), la police des mers et des fronti`eres. Compare devoir and devoirs: Le devoir des parents est de prot´eger leurs enfants et le devoir du citoyen est de limiter la pollution and Allez, les enfants, faites vos devoirs. Compare enfer and enfers: Le chemin de l’enfer est pav´e de bonnes intentions and Sartre’s “L’enfer, c’est les autres” in Huis clos versus Orph´ee aux enfers = Orpheus in the underworld. Police also has the meaning of policy, as in une police d’assurance.
10.6 Use of the partitive article before an adjective preceding a plural noun With most adjectives, de is used, but this is tending to be associated with R3 usage: apr`es de longues ann´ees; de vieux vˆetements; J’ai obtenu d’excellentes notes dans toutes les mati`eres; S´ebastien a obtenu de remarquables notes dans toutes les mati`eres. However, in R2, as well as in R1 speech, and even in the written R3 registers, one comes across: des vieux vˆetements. One would not use des when excellentes or remarquables precedes notes, however. Perhaps this is due to the length of these two adjectives, or to a slightly more elevated style. Des is always used when the adjective and noun form an indissoluble group. This is standard practice: des jeunes filles/gens; des petits pains/pois.
Part III
11 Verbs and moods of verbs / Les verbes et les modes des verbes This highly charged passage of figurative language narrates the total domination of a drunken man over a female partner. It remains unclear whether, at the end, an actual murder, or even suicide, occurs. The piece contains both indicative and subjunctive moods (divorces, choisisses, pardonnes, ensuive), together with infinitive (engueuler, accabler, annoncer, salir, riposter, mourir) and imperative moods (pars), and present participles (gesticulant, caract´erisant, sentant, dirigeant). The passive form is also used: est assassin´ee. A range of tenses is apparent: perfect, pluperfect (je n’avais pas lu le message) and future (composerai, ferai) as well as auxiliaries like savoir and pouvoir. The verbal features are highlighted. Some translations are offered. Notice the pervasive use of the present tense, which invests the passage with a vivacity and immediacy the past tense would not necessarily suggest. Le meurtre psychologique de la M´eridionale ` bout porLa M´eridionale [woman from southern France] est assassin´ ee a ` 18h 30. Le meurtrier tant [at close range] le vendredi 21 octobre 2005 a ` l’engueuler fou furieux, dans un ´etat d’´ebri´et´e avanc´e, n’h´ esite pas a ` l’accabler, a ` hurler de toutes ses forces. Les vapeurs [bawl at her], a d’alcool assomment [overwhelm] la victime qui voit la mort s’annoncer ` petits feux. Son agresseur tourne les talons. Il s’´ a eloigne une dizaine de m`etres plus loin en se dirigeant vers sa loge o` u il r` egne en Grand et V´en´erable Maˆıtre. Il prend le temps de lire un message et revient dans une col`ere noire, en gesticulant dans tous les sens. Il vocif` ere des injures, des blasph`emes : « Oh putain ! Je n’avais pas lu ton message. Au nom de Dieu ! C’est la raison pour laquelle je ne composerai jamais avec toi. Je te porte au pinacle ! Haut ! Tr`es haut ! Tr`es tr`es haut ! Mais il y a une chose que je ne ferai jamais, c’est de composer avec toi ! Il faut que tu divorces ! Il faut que tu choisisses ! Tu ne peux pas ˆetre d’un cˆ ot´e et de l’autre ! » Le Grand Maˆıtre fait demi-tour puis revient quelques minutes plus tard, peut-ˆetre pris de remords. D’une humeur caustique, il lance au visage de la M´eridionale qui a des traits physiques et une morphologie qui caract´erisent les filles du midi : « Tu as de la chance d’ˆ etre blonde aux
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yeux bleus ! Je te pardonne ! ». T´etanis´ee [paralyzed], se sentant victime d’une injustice accablante et d’une ironie mordante, la M´eridionale se rebiffe [adopts a rebellious attitude]. Elle ne sait comment se comporter ` un alcoolique. Pourtant, elle prend son courage a ` deux mains et face a r´etorque [retorts] aussitˆ ot avec des palpitations dans la cage thoracique : « Je ne comprends pas que tu me pardonnes. C’est toi qui dois implorer mon pardon ! Il ne faut pas que tu inverses les rˆ oles ! Je ne resterai pas ` lui de riposter du tac au tac [tit for tat] avec une dans le Temple . . . ». A violence inou¨ıe et dans une hyst´erie incontrˆ olable: « Eh bien pars ! Pars pars pars pars maintenant ! Pars pars pars pars imm´ediatement ! Pars pars pars pars tout de suite ! » Il harc`ele sa victime jusqu’` a ´epuisement, sans se salir les mains et, surtout, sans aucun t´emoin. Le d´ebit [outpouring] enflamm´e du Grand Maˆıtre paralyse sa victime. Quelle violence impitoyable ! Quel traumatisme ! Quel choc ´emo` faire si ce n’est de partir [apart from tionnel ! Il n’y a plus rien a leaving] ! Partir, c’est mourir un peu ! Les brimades [bullying], les engueulades [violent shouting] et les mots blessants ont fait leur chemin jusqu’` a ce que mort s’ensuive ! Que reproche le harceleur ` sa victime ? Quel a ´et´e l’´el´ement d´eclencheur de ce meurtre psya chologique ? Qui sont les v´eritables complices de ce meurtre ? S’agit-il d’un meurtre avec pr´em´editation ? Quel ´etait le mobile du crime ? Que ` qui profite le crime ? Au cœur de cette s’est-il v´eritablement pass´e ? A triste et sombre histoire, trois ´el´ements fondamentaux reposent sur la question du territoire occup´e, de la domination despotique et du grand ` cette ivresse du pouvoir se rajoute celle de l’alcool au pouvoir pouvoir. A destructeur et non salvateur.
It seems helpful to offer a general and basic statement about verbs as a preface to individual characteristics which will be analyzed in much greater detail in the following chapters where, inevitably, there will be some very slight overlap. The verb is the word par excellence which expresses judgments; for example, it expresses changes (La plante pousse/fleurit/d´ep´erit/meurt); it expresses movement (La fillette marche/court/nage) and how we react with the phenomena of the external world (Nous lisons/voyons/craignons/sourions). The verb is the class of word that indicates the person and number of the subject, and the tense and mood of the clause. Verbs are first presented in dictionaries as infinitives. Infinitives in French end in –er, –re, –ir and –oir. We call these first, second, third and fourth conjugation respectively. The verbs that do not fit easily into a specific conjugation are called irregular verbs. Every verb has a root (technically called a lexeme), so that, when we remove the endings –er, –re, –ir and –oir, what is left usually imparts a meaning. What accompanies this root is a complex of indicators of person, tense and mood. The endings, terminaisons, or d´esinences as they are
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technically also known in French, are as follows. If we take the verb regarder we may split it in this way: regard> er root or conjugation lexeme regard> e regard> es regard> e root ending or root ending root ending morpheme (present (present of tense and tense and tense and person secondthird(present person person tense and singular) singular) first-person singular)
11.1 Conjugation (a full conjugation list of regular and irregular verbs appears at the end of this volume) If we add to the root or lexeme of a verb the endings which express the different persons, number, tense and mood, we arrive at the conjugation. Generally speaking, there exist four persons in the singular (je/tu/il/elle). There are four plural forms (nous/vous/ils/elles). The plural form vous is also used instead of the singular tu form when addressing an unknown person or a person requiring an emotional or respectful distance. Briefly, the verb expresses an action or thought completed by the subject. It also indicates the existence or state of the subject. It links the subject to its attribute, adjective or adjectival phrase (as with ˆetre, paraˆıtre).
11.2 Mood of the verb Conjugations of verbs are divided into four moods: indicative, subjunctive, imperative and infinitive. The indicative mood is the mood of reality, that which is certain to have happened or will happen. The subjunctive mood expresses wish, possibility, probability, uncertainty, doubt – in short a hypothesis. The imperative is the mood of recommendation, command and request. The infinitive mood is impersonal and corresponds to the English to + verb. Below are the details of the four moods, the first two of which are listed in their various tenses. 11.2.1 Indicative Mood 1. Present: refers to the moment when the action takes place, or to the period when someone is speaking: J’envoie un texto (text message); Il fait du soleil ce matin; Elle est en vacances en ce moment.
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2. Perfect: formed by the auxiliary verbs avoir or ˆetre and a past participle: J’ai vu (I have seen) la pi`ece; Sabrina a parl´e (has spoken/spoke) avec son amie; S´ebastien est rentr´e. 3. Past historic / preterit: the past historic refers to an event that took place, often a long time ago (pass´e lointain), and at a precise point in time. The event is completely finished and has no repercussion on the present moment, whereas the perfect tense (pass´e compos´e) refers to happenings that encroach on the present moment. It is used almost exclusively in writing, for instance in novels and historical documents: ` l’automne qu’il vint nous rendre visite; Madeleine de Verch`eres se battit C’est a courageusement contre les Iroquois. 4. Imperfect: indicates a series of events or actions with no real suggestion of beginning or end. Used in narrations and descriptions. It expresses a habitual process: Elle se promenait dans le bois; J’adorais les films avec Charlot (Charlie Chaplin); Sabrina travaillait entre 14h et 21h. 5. Future: indicates a future event or action, although it has to compete increasingly with the present: J’irai (I’ll go) la semaine prochaine > J’y vais la semaine prochaine. 6. Conditional: corresponds to the English idea of would: J’aimerais revenir un jour (I would like to come back one day). 7. Past anterior: formed by the past historic of avoir or ˆetre and a past participle. Little used except in narratives of novels and literary journalism: D`es que C´eline eut remis son rapport, elle se sentit en vacances (As soon as C´eline had handed in her report, she felt as though she were on vacation); Aussitˆot qu’Aur´elie fut rentr´ee, nous sortˆımes (As soon as Aur´elie had come home we went out). 8. Pluperfect: formed with the imperfect of avoir or ˆetre and a past participle. Translates the same idea as the past anterior but used much more in common discourse, spoken and written. Indicates that an event has already taken place when another occurs: Je leur ai dit que je l’avais d´ej` a ´ecrit (I told them that I had already written it); Quand Ad´eline s’´etait couch´ee, nous avons jou´e aux cartes (When Ad´eline had gone to bed, we played cards). 9. Future perfect: expresses a future action preceding another yet to come. Formed with the future of avoir or ˆetre and a past participle: Quand tu reviendras, on aura d´ej` a mang´e (When you come back, we’ll already have eaten); Apr`es que Marcel sera rentr´e, on sortira (After Marcel has come back, we’ll go out). 10. Conditional perfect: expresses a future action in relation to a past action considered as the point of departure. Formed with the conditional of avoir or ˆetre and a past participle: Le garage nous a inform´es qu’ils auraient termin´e1 la r´eparation lundi prochain (The garage informed 1
Some purists would advocate auront termin´e here, i.e., future perfect.
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us that they would have completed the repair next Monday); Ma fille m’avait dit qu’elle serait revenue avant mon d´epart (My daughter told me she would have come back before my departure). 11.2.2 Subjunctive mood The subjunctive mood expresses wishes, probability, supposition, hypothesis and doubt, and is often linked to feelings. It is particularly, but not exclusively, used in subordinate clauses. It is slowly disappearing, and some less linguistically aware French speakers hardly use it at all 1. Present Subjunctive: denotes doubt, often with regard to the future: Je ne crois pas que C´edric vienne (I don’t believe C´edric will come); Daniel doute que Diane ait raison (Daniel doubts Diane is right). 2. Imperfect subjunctive: as with the present subjunctive, its principal, but not exclusive, function is to denote doubt. Only the third-person singular has survived in any functional way, and even here it is reduced to a written form. The imperfect subjunctive is unquestionably an R3 phenomenon these days, although in the distant past, say the nineteenth century, most of its forms had some currency, and one would find it easily in literature of past eras. Interestingly enough, and in stark contrast, the imperfect subjunctive persists in vigorous style in Italian and Spanish. That some commentators should say that the imperfect subjunctive has disappeared in French because it is too complex or its forms too awkward to manage is belied by its permanency in these other Romance languages. In any case, it is replaced by the “easier” present subjunctive: Personne ne croyait qu’Ir`ene fˆ ut Russe (No one believed that Ir`ene was Russian); Sophie aurait aim´e que son ami vˆınt (Sophie would have liked her friend to come). 3. Perfect subjunctive: as with the present subjunctive, its principal, but by no means unique, function is to express doubt. It is made up of the present subjunctive of avoir or ˆetre and a past participle: Je doute que la neige ait fondu (I doubt that the snow has melted); La direction a d´eplor´e que les ´el`eves soient arriv´es en retard pour l’examen (The head teacher regretted that the pupils/students arrived late for the exam). 4. Pluperfect subjunctive: as with the imperfect subjunctive, little remains of the pluperfect subjunctive. It is made up of the imperfect subjunctive of avoir or ˆetre and the past participle: L’h´ero¨ıne craignait que ut disparu (The heroine feared lest her lover had disappeared); son amant ne fˆ Axelle fut surprise que l’on ne l’eˆ ut pas inform´ee personnellement (Axelle was surprised that she had not been informed personally). 11.2.3 Imperative mood The imperative expresses an order (positive or negative), advice, invitation, wish or desire. It has three forms, one corresponding to tu, the second corresponding to vous, and the third corresponding to nous. As in English, it is used without a subject. In the present imperative, the forms are: Viens
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` vos parents (Speak voir cette peinture (Come and see this painting); Parlez a to your parents); Reposez-vous un peu (Take a rest for a while); Nageons plus tard (Let’s swim later). There is also such a construction as the perfect imperative, but it is rarely used: Aie termin´e le travail avant que je ne rentre. 11.2.4 The infinitive The infinitive mood expresses an idea of action or state without reference to a person or number. It is an impersonal mood. It is used both as a verb and as a noun, but almost entirely as the former: Louise voudrait partir demain (Louise would like to go tomorrow); Le d´ejeuner, le devoir et le rire sont des exemples de verbes utilis´es comme noms (D´ejeuner, devoir and rire are examples of verbs used as nouns).
12 Infinitive, perfect infinitive / L’infinitif, l’infinitif pass´e The infinitive is the form of the verb not inflected for grammatical categories such as person, tense and mood, and is not used with an obvious subject. In English, the infinitive nearly always consists of the word to followed by the verb: to go, to run. This construction in English is certainly unique in European languages. In French, as in the other Romance languages and beyond, the infinitive has no equivalent for the word to, as in to look at: regarder (in Spanish: mirar, in Italian: guardare). The infinitive of the verb is the form found at the beginning of the entry in dictionaries.
12.1 Cases where the subject of the infinitive is omitted: 1. in exclamatory, interrogative statements and maxims: O` u aller ?; Que faire ?; Me parler ainsi ? Me reprocher ma faiblesse ? Abandonner la partie ? Jamais !; Pourquoi l’avoir avou´e ?; m´enager la ch`evre et le chou (to sit on the fence); prˆecher un converti (to preach to the converted); 2. when the subject of the infinitive and that of the main verb are identical: ´ El´eonore va nous rendre visite; Laurent est parti sans nous avertir; Je veux lui parler; 3. when the infinitive is implicitly represented by a preceding possessive adjective: Je n’oublie pas sa promesse de nous ´ecrire; Sophie lui a rappel´e son ` payer le voyage; engagement a 4. when the infinitive has a general or indeterminate application: C’est ` dire; Il n’y a pas de quoi fouetter un chat (It’s no big deal); Il est inutile facile a ` porter; de se fˆ acher; Prˆet a 5. when certain verbs are used declaratively, an infinitive often follows, and particularly the perfect infinitive. The main verbs here are: affirmer, annoncer, assurer, avouer, d´eclarer, nier: Les deux ´etudiants affirment vouloir ` la c´er´emonie; Le gouvernement annonce avoir pris la bonne d´ecision; assister a La journaliste assure avoir assist´e aux ´ev´enements; Annick avoue s’ˆetre tromp´ee; L’´etudiante d´eclare avoir ´et´e victime d’une agression; La femme nie avoir abandonn´e son enfant. This type of construction is of a higher register (R3/2) than the subordinate clause introduced by que, which is a standard R2 expression: Les deux parents affirment qu’ils veulent 183
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` la c´er´emonie; Le gouvernement a annonc´e qu’il avait pris la bonne assister a d´ecision; L’´etudiante d´eclare qu’elle avait ´et´e victime d’une agression. Numerous other verbs are followed by an infinitive, sometimes with a preposition: aimer, apprendre, d´esirer, ignorer, promettre, renoncer, savoir, souffrir, ` nager ; E´milie ignovouloir: Lucile aime jouer de la guitare; St´ephanie a appris a rait avoir commis une infraction; Philippe promet de venir demain; Antoine ` chercher son v´elo; ´Elisabeth souffre toujours d’avoir commis l’erreur. renonce a In the case of ignorer, the register is higher with the following (perfect) ´milie ignoinfinitive than with the subordinate clause introduced by que: E rait qu’elle avait commis une infraction. Usage with savoir requires special attention. One may say, but in a higher register and with greater elegance: a, as opposed to Je savais que je le trouverais l` a. But when Je savais le trouver l` savoir suggests a capacity, the infinitive is needed: Aur´elien sait lire/nager. There is another small but very common group of verbs related to statements of thoughts, beliefs and recognition where a following infinitive suggests a higher register than the subordinate clause introduced by que: croire, dire, penser, pr´etendre, reconnaˆıtre (see Chapter 18 for a full development of this feature): R2
R3/2
Je croyais que je l’avais vue. Sabrina a dit qu’elle n’avait pas compos´e le po`eme. Oc´eane pensait qu’elle avait raison. Jean pr´etend (claims) qu’il n’est pas sorti ce matin. Reconnaissez-vous que vous avez particip´e au vol ?
Je croyais l’avoir vue. Sabrina a dit ne pas avoir compos´e le po`eme / n’avoir pas compos´e le po`eme. Oc´eane pensait avoir raison. Jean pr´etend ne pas eˆtre sorti ce matin / n’ˆetre pas sorti ce matin. Reconnaissez-vous avoir particip´e au vol ?
12.2 Cases where the subject of the infinitive corresponds to the complement of the main verb With numerous verbs, notably those related to perception, the subject of the infinitive may also be followed by a subordinate clause. Where an infinitive is involved, the register is higher than with a subordinate qui clause: R2
R3/2
J’ai vu ces jeunes filles qui s’approchaient de la ferme. Je les ai entendues qui se plaignaient.
J’ai vu ces jeunes filles s’approcher de la ferme. Je les ai entendues se plaindre.
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Where will or request are concerned, other possibilities occur. Thus the sentence Le proviseur a ordonn´e aux e´l`eves de quitter le coll`ege may also be expressed as Le proviseur a ordonn´e que les ´el`eves quittent le coll`ege. Here, a subjunctive is used. Another example of the same type: Ma m`ere a demand´e au directeur de la recevoir versus Ma m`ere a demand´e au directeur qu’il la rec¸oive.
12.3 Place of the pronoun before the infinitive (see also Chapters 45 and 46 on pronouns and Chapter 63 on word order) The personal, reflexive or other pronoun ( = y/en) is placed before the infinitive: Je peux le faire/lui parler/m’en occuper/y penser. This order is standard in both spoken and written language. However, in former times, and even into the twentieth century, the pronoun was frequently placed before the auxiliary verb, a construction found notably with such verbs as aller, devoir, falloir, pouvoir, savoir, venir and vouloir; less often with croire, oser, penser; and rarely with compter, d´esirer, faillir, paraˆıtre. Hanse and Blampain (2005, p. 305) quote authors of the twentieth century: “Il le faut croire” (Colette), “Pour s’aller coucher sans attendre” (Vercors), “Ce qu’il d´esirait s’allait donc se r´ealiser” (Duhamel; the double reflexive here seems unusual). One could add: “J’en ai rec¸u des satisfactions si sensibles que je ne te les pourrai pas dire de bouche” (Pascal 1950, p. 84); “Ma figure ´etait si ´etrange que ma m`ere ne se pouvait empˆecher de rire et de s’´ecrier . . . ” (Chateaubriand 1951, vol I, p. 440); “L’´eloquence de Baraglioul n’y pourrait rien changer” (Gide 1961, p. 7). Such a construction, extremely common in the French of the Middle Ages, finds its echo in contemporary Italian and Spanish where the pronoun precedes the auxiliary verb as easily as it precedes the infinitive: Lo voglio fare (Italian) and Lo puedo hacer (Spanish), both meaning I can do it, instead of Voglio farlo / Puedo hacerlo. The pronoun y cannot be separated from avoir in the impersonal y avoir: a une erreur. Neither can y be joined to lui: although one may Il doit y avoir l` say with falloir Il me fallait y p´en´etrer / Il m’y fallait p´en´etrer, one can only say Il lui fallait y p´en´etrer. It happens that there is a choice of word order before the infinitive when a pronoun combines with tout and rien, and certain monosyllabic adverbs like bien, mal, trop, mieux, tant: Il fallait alors lui tout dire instead of Il fallait alors tout lui dire, although, admittedly, the latter construction is much ` rien en retirer / a ` more common. Likewise, with rien + en or y: sans songer a en rien retirer ; pour n’y rien voir / ne rien y voir. Adverbs come between the pronoun and the infinitive more frequently: sans la trop serrer (Colette), afin de le mieux voir (also Colette). However, the adverb precedes the pronoun much more in daily discourse: sans trop y insister, pour bien/mieux le lire.
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When an infinitive depends upon another infinitive, a surprising number of combinations of word order with pronouns are available, witness mieux: pour mieux le lui faire avouer / pour le lui mieux faire avouer / pour le lui faire mieux avouer / pour le lui faire avouer mieux and bien: pour bien le lui entendre dire / pour le lui bien entendre dire. When a reflexive pronoun occurs, there seems to be less flexibility, in that the reflexive is usually placed before the verb: pour mieux se porter, afin de bien se raser, pour ´eviter de mal se comporter. Two possibilities occur with respect to word order and the reflexive verb as an infinitive, which are not without their register differences: J’entends les enfants se battre (R2) / J’entends se battre les enfants (R3/2); J’ai vu les enfants se laver (R2) / J’ai vu se laver les enfants (R3/2). If the object of the complement is a pronoun, only one order is permissible: Je les vois s’agiter; Je les entends se battre. With verbs such as regarder, entendre and laisser, a variety of uses exists, and this can involve the preposition par: Le p`ere regarde dormir les enfants (The father watches the children sleeping); Je le laisse faire ce qu’il veut (I let him do what he wants). An alternative form here with the pronoun as indirect object is possible, but this construction is less common: Je lui laisse faire ce qu’il veut. However, if the object is chacun or a noun, it is likely that it will ` chacun (or par chacun) ce qu’il veut faire; Je laisse be indirect: Je laisse faire a ` Adrienne ce qu’elle veut faire. Par may be used as an alternative in faire a the following construction: J’ai entendu les enfants pousser des cris / J’ai entendu pousser des cris par les enfants. Entendre is used with no direct object where one would use it in English: Elle entendait marcher dans le couloir (She heard someone walking in the corridor). One could resort to a subordinate quelqu’un qui clause here: Elle entendait quelqu’un qui marchait dans le couloir. The first of these two sentences is more elegant and of a higher register. Given the frequency of faire changer de, it is worthwhile giving it detailed consideration. The constructions faire changer d’avis / d’opinion / de place / de visage / d’humeur / de conduite / de vˆetements offer two possibilities over a direct and indirect object. Generally speaking, faire changer de place involves a direct object; at the same time, there is a question of word order, and here register comes into play. In the following example, it is likely that only one possibility exists: R´emi a chang´e un tableau de place (R´emi put the painting in another place). But the next two examples illustrate a difference in register: Je ne puis changer cet enfant de place tous les jours (R3) (I can’t put this child in a different place every day – remark by a teacher); Je ne peux changer de place cet enfant tous les jours (R2). Consider the above construction with the additional faire: Je ne puis faire changer cet enfant de place tous les jours (R3) (I can’t have this child changing places every day); Je ne peux faire changer de place cet enfant tous les jours (R2). With a pronoun one usually hears a direct object: Je ne peux le faire changer de place. But the indirect use of le>lui is
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not to be entirely excluded: Je l’ai fait changer d’avis (R2) is more common than Je lui ai fait changer d’avis. With a noun, the direct object is meeting increasing competition from the indirect object, but this can depend on the place of the dative in the sentence. One says very easily: Elle a fait changer ` son interlocutrice (She caused the person she was speaking to to change d’avis a her mind). The direct object would be surprising here but it would not be surprising in the following: Elle a fait changer son interlocutrice d’avis. Consider the three variations in the following: 1. Elle a fait changer son interlocutrice d’opinion sur cette question. 2. Elle a fait changer d’opinion son interlocutrice sur les d´ecisions a ` prendre. 3. Elle a fait changer d’opinion a ` son interlocutrice sur cette question.
` l’enfant and La m`ere a fait Similarly: La m`ere a fait changer de vˆetements a ` l’enfant les vˆetements qu’il portait. In the first case, enfant could changer a not precede vˆetements, for the sake of balance, while in the second case an extra clause is needed for enfant to precede vˆetements (qu’il portait), again for the sake of balance. The verb entendre followed by the infinitives of dire and similar verbs such as affirmer, annoncer, d´eclarer, expliquer, proposer, raconter and sugg´erer requires an indirect object when the following infinitive governs a direct object. Dire and other verbs cannot take two direct objects here. However, ` this particular construction is no longer very current: J’ai entendu dire a mon fr`ere qu’il ne pouvait pas venir (I heard my brother say that he couldn’t come); a ´et´e prise Nous avons entendu annoncer au ministre que la d´ecision avait d´ej` (We heard the minister announce that the decision had already been taken); Elle a entendu proposer au comit´e qu’il se r´eunisse plus r´eguli`erement (She heard the committee propose that they should meet more regularly). In all these cases, one would now read and hear in R2 and even R3 discourse: J’ai entendu mon fr`ere dire que . . . / Nous avons entendu le ministre annoncer que . . . / Elle a entendu le comit´e annoncer que . . . Where two personal pronouns are involved, one of which could be a reflexive, there are several considerations. If one pronoun is the subject of the infinitive and the second is its complement, there is no difficulty if each pronoun is placed before the appropriate verb, and this construction corresponds to the English construction: On le voit nous suivre avec obstination (We see him follow acher (I let him get angry); Ir`ene us with determination); Je le laisse se fˆ m’envoie t’avertir (Ir`ene has sent me to warn you); Je l’ai vue l’´ecrire (I saw her write it). Me, te, se, nous, vous precede le, la, les, while these last three come before lui and leur in the following types of sentences: On vous le voit tenter (We/They see you attempt it); Je te les fais avertir (I have you warn them); Ils me l’ont entendu dire (They heard me say it); Je le leur ai entendu dire (I heard them say it); Ils se les ont fait envoyer (They had them sent to themselves);
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On les y a fait envoyer (We/They have them sent there); Je la lui ai entendu chanter (I heard her sing it); Je le leur ai vu faire (I saw them do it). But it is perfectly possible to say On vous voit le tenter ; Je te fais les avertir; Ils m’ont entendu le dire; Je les ai entendus le dire; Je l’ai entendue la chanter; Je les ai vus le faire. Furthermore, for example, On vous voit le tenter is more common than On vous le voit tenter, Je l’ai entendue la chanter is much more common than Je la lui ai entendu chanter, and Je les ai vus le faire is much more common than Je le leur ai vu faire, partly in this last case because the repetitive element l can be difficult to say. In the following combination of vous with le, la, les, however, the construction changes: Je l’ai entendue vous parler (I heard her speak to you). Here, the subject of parler is la/l’, and vous could not precede entendue. Note the idiomatic use of envoyer + infinitive: Envoie chercher le m´edecin (Send for / Go and get the physician); Elle l’a envoy´ee promener (She sent her off/packing). If the subject of promener were a noun, it would follow the infinitive: Elle a envoy´e promener son fr`ere, tellement il l’embˆetait (She sent her brother packing, he was annoying her so much). The infinitive is regularly used on commercial labels and to indicate method of use, since it has a less authoritarian resonance: Ne pas exposer a ` ` consommer avant juin 2015; Faire chauffer a ` petit feu; Remuer l’humidit´e ; A ` peindre avant de . . . ; Tenir hors de port´ee la solution; Bien nettoyer la surface a des enfants. ` la direction; The infinitive is used to convey official orders: S’adresser a Rayer la mention inutile (Cross out the statements that are not applicable); Ne pas se pencher au dehors (in a train compartment). Following on from the above, all normal instructions provided by a computer are in the infinitive: atteindre (go to), copier coller (copy and paste), couper coller (cut and paste), envoyer (send), justifier, rechercher (find), remplacer (replace), r´ep´eter (repeat), sauvegarder (save; the Anglicism sauver is common in Quebec but is frowned upon), t´el´echarger (download; the monstrous Anglicism downloader is not uncommon in Quebec). The infinitive can be the subject of a sentence: Lire des romans me plaˆıt ´enorm´ement (instead of La lecture de romans est . . . ); Nager est un des grands plaisirs de ma vie (instead of La natation est un des . . . ); Composer des vers, r´esoudre des probl`emes alg´ebriques ´etait pour moi un jeu (instead of La composition de vers, la solution de probl`emes ´etait . . . ). It can also be the attribute of the subject: Partir, c’est mourir un peu; Courir le cent m`etres en neuf secondes, c’est courir comme une gazelle; Tromper, c’est mentir ; Voir, c’est croire; Se tenir en ´equilibre sur une jambe n’est pas facile. In a narrative of R3 style an infinitive may be introduced by the preposition de. Such a construction invests the sentence with a vivacious quality. The sentence always begins with Et: Et chacun / les invit´es d’applaudir (And each one / the guests applauded); Et elle de dire qu’elle avait raison (And she said
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she was right); Et sa soeur de partir tout de suite (And her sister left immediately). Hanse and Blampain (2005, p. 309) refer disapprovingly to the Quebec style characteristic of journalists where the noun follows the infinitive: Et, d’ajouter le ministre que . . . The infinitive can easily replace the gerund or a noun in the following case: Lire Camus aujourd’hui (Reading Camus today); Grandir avec Camus (Growing up with Camus) – both these examples are taken from titles of articles in Le magazine litt´eraire, January/February 2010). The infinitive also suggests the idea of “how to,” as in educational books: ´crire avec logique et clart´e (How to write logically and clearly); D´evelopper une id´ee E (How to develop an idea); Trouver le mot juste (How to find the right word); Prendre la parole (How to speak in public). Also, among others: bˆ atir un paragraphe, choisir les pr´epositions ad´equates, maˆıtriser la ponctuation, articuler/´elaborer/nuancer un texte argument´e.
13 Present tense / Le pr´esent
The three main groups of verbs are those ending in –er (chanter), –re (vendre) and –ir (finir), although there is a smaller group, somewhat irregular, which brings together those ending in –evoir (recevoir). The only group that is truly regular is identified as that with the –er ending, while there are some verbs ending in –re, like prendre, some ending in –ir, like venir, and some ending in –oir, like vouloir which do not correspond to the –re/–ir/– oir pattern. Prefixes of prendre, venir and –evoir do admittedly give rise to a substantial number of similar verbs: prendre > apprendre, comprendre, surprendre; venir > advenir, souvenir, subvenir; recevoir > d´ecevoir (to disappoint), percevoir. Here is the present tense of the main conjugations followed by comments:
Present tense of chanter je chante I sing / am singing tu chantes you sing / are singing il/elle chante nous chantons vous chantez ils/elles chantent
he/she/it sings / is singing we sing / are singing you sing / are singing they sing / are singing Present tense of finir je finis tu finis il/elle finit nous finissons vous finissez ils/elles finissent
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Present tense of vendre je vends I sell / am selling tu vends you sell / are selling il/elle vend he/she/it sells / is selling nous vendons we sell / are selling you sell / are selling ils/elles vendent they sell / are selling vous vendez
I finish / am finishing you finish / are finishing he/she/it finishes / are finishing we finish / are finishing you finish / are finishing they finish / are finishing
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Present tense of recevoir je rec¸ois tu rec¸ois il/elle rec¸oit nous recevons vous recevez ils/elles rec¸oivent
I receive / am receiving you receive / are receiving he/she/it receives / is receiving we receive / are receiving you receive / are receiving they receive / are receiving
13.1 Verb groups Verbs ending in –er constitute over 90 percent of all French verbs and run into thousands. In this sense, it could be legitimately argued that the only true regular group of verbs is the –er type. Furthermore, nearly all neologisms seem to be created precisely within this group, which is certainly very versatile and capable of absorbing countless new words, for example oscariser (to award an Oscar). A selection of neologisms (creations, borrowings or imitations – calques in French – of the past sixty or seventy years) listed below are frequently related, but by no means always, to the constantly accelerating pace of technological change: automatiser, bureautiser, crapahuter (to march over a long period / to yomp, of a soldier), cybern´etiser, d´ec´el´erer, d´efolier, doper, esth´etiser, faxer, flipper (to freak out, to be depressed), formater, impacter, informatiser, lifter (to give a facelift to), lock-outer, lyncher (to lynch and more commonly, to beat up), marginaliser, plastiquer, s´ecuriser, shooter, squatter, standardiser, stresser, t´el´ecopier, t´el´eviser, tester, traumatiser, urger, verbaliser, viabiliser (to provide [an area/house] with all utilities). Some neologisms are now, quite understandably, disappearing, like t´el´egraphier, overtaken by e-mails and texting, and here one may speculate, in the year 2011, that the ` with texter (quelqu’un). English to text (someone) will replace envoyer un texto a There are about a hundred verbs with the –re ending, but many of them are irregular, and they have not generated verbs with similar endings, with the result that their possibilities of alignment with other verbs may be considered defunct. There are about thirty verbs of the vendre type: attendre, confondre, d´efendre, d´ependre, descendre, distendre, entendre, ´epandre, ´etendre, fendre, fondre, mordre, pendre, perdre, pondre, pr´etendre, rendre, r´epandre, r´epondre, tendre, tondre, tordre. Unusually, rompre (with corrompre and interrompre) diverges only marginally from this paradigm with an extra t in the third-person singular: rompt. As with the –re ending type, verbs ending in –ir, which number about 300, are not able to engender verbs of identical conjugation, and may again be viewed as static and unable to attract contemporary additions. Alunir (to land on the moon), atterrir and amerrir seem to be the only new –ir verbs to have survived in any active form. Other verbs with –ir endings like cueillir and dormir form different subgroups. There follows a substantial
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list of verbs of the –ir type like finir: abolir, aboutir, abrutir, accomplir, s’accroupir, adoucir, affaiblir, affermir, affranchir, agir, agrandir, alourdir, alunir, amerrir, aplanir, aplatir, appauvrir, applaudir, approfondir, arrondir, assainir, assombrir, s’assoupir, s’assourdir, attendrir, atterrir, avertir, bˆ atir, blanchir, blˆemir, bleuir, (re)bondir, brandir, brunir, ch´erir, choisir, compatir, convertir, d´efinir, d´egourdir, d´emolir, d´emunir, d´esob´eir, divertir, durcir, ´eblouir, ´eclaircir, ´elargir, embellir, endurcir, enfouir, engloutir, enlaidir, enrichir, envahir, ´epaissir, ´epanouir, ´etablir, ´etourdir, s’´evanouir, faiblir, finir, fleurir, fournir, fraˆıchir, fr´emir, garantir, g´emir, grandir, grossir, gu´erir, intervertir, jaillir, jaunir, maigrir, mincir, moisir, munir, mˆ urir, noircir, nourrir, ob´eir, pˆ alir, p´erir, pourrir, punir, raccourcir, rafraˆıchir, raidir, rajeunir, ralentir, r´eagir, r´efl´echir, refroidir, r´ejouir, remplir, resplendir, r´etablir,retentir, r´etr´ecir, r´eunir, r´eussir, rosir, rougir, saisir, salir, subir, surgir, trahir, unir, verdir, vernir, vieillir, vomir. As for verbs with the –evoir ending, their forms vary greatly, and some grammarians suggest excluding them from any formal conjugation. Although recevoir conjugates like percevoir, apercevoir and d´ecevoir, for instance, its forms are entirely incompatible with vouloir, voir and pouvoir.
13.2 Uses of the present tense A most important observation to be made immediately with respect to French verbs, in certain tenses, like the present and imperfect, is that they no longer benefit from a progressive tense or gerund as in English (I am writing/walking/reading), Spanish (Estoy escribiendo/caminando/leyendo) or Italian (Sto scrivendo/camminando/leggendo). This is considered a serious deficiency by many linguists, including the present authors. At the same time, the irregular verb aller in an R3, literary context is sometimes used to perform the function of the progressive tense: Le bruit va (en) s’apaisant (The noise is fading); Les couleurs vont (en) se d´egradant (The colors are fading). Another way in which French can deal with the idea of an action continuing in the present moment is the rather long and even clumsy construction which is nevertheless in common use: ˆetre + en train de + infinitive. It stresses the moment when an action takes place: Elle est en train d’envoyer un mail. It should be added that this construction is regularly used in the imperfect tense as well. Two similar constructions involving the present tense and referring to the immediate future are ˆetre sur le point de and ˆetre en passe de (R3): Benjamin est sur le point de publier son deuxi`eme roman (Benjamin is about to publish his second novel); Sabrina est en passe de remporter le troph`ee (Sabrina is about to carry off the trophy). The imperfect could just as well be used here: Benjamin ´etait sur le point de . . . ; Sabrina ´etait en passe de . . . The present is used for describing features obtaining at the present moment: Les fenˆetres donnent sur le jardin qui descend vers la rivi`ere; Le ciel n’est pas d´egag´e aujourd’hui.
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The present tense refers to events that are happening at the present moment: Il fait tr`es froid/chaud en ce moment; Il pleut/neige a ` Grenoble maintenant; Ils terminent leur travail maintenant; Annick lit le journal au salon; Je ne sais que faire. The historic present, called pr´esent historique or narratif in French, relates a past event in a striking way as though it were occurring now. Three examples illustrate this: 1. 2.
3.
Samuel de Champlain fonde Qu´ebec en 1608. En 1789, la France ´etait en pleine crise politique et ´economique. Plusieurs tentatives de r´eforme avaient ´echou´e. Le 14 juillet, le peuple s’empare de la Bastille. Je me promenais tranquillement dans le bois et voil` a que je rencontre mon amie Emilie. Many creative authors choose the historic present since it invests the narrative with a sense of immediacy, particularly if the narrative is cast in the first person. Andr´e Malraux’s Les conqu´erants (1975, p. 6) provides a perfect illustration of this feature: “Je monte au premier ´etage par une sorte d’´echelle. Personne. Je m’assieds, et desœuvr´e, regarde: une armoire europ´eene, une table Louis Philippe [. . .] Par la baie arrive, avec un gr´esillement, [. . .] la forte odeur des graisses chinoises qui cuisent . . . Un bruit de socques. Entrent le propri´etaire, deux autres Chinois, et un Franc¸ais, G´erard, pour qui je suis ici.”
Present as future: the present tense often replaces the future, and increasingly so, in daily discourse. It may be argued that this use is a result of a lack of imagination or slothfulness: Je rentre demain; Tu pars la semaine prochaine ?; C’est d´ecid´e ! L’hiver prochain, nous allons au Colorado faire du ski; D´epˆechez-vous ! Le film commence dans quelques minutes. Present as command: acts as an imperative and softens the weight of the order: Tu envoies le mail maintenant, s’il te plaˆıt; En partant, tu fermes bien la porte, s’il te plaˆıt. The habitual present expresses repeated actions: Elle se couche tous les ` vingt et une heures; Les enfants partent tous les matins a jours a ` 7h 30 et reviennent a` 16h; Je dors toujours la fenˆetre ouverte. Scientific fact: Deux et deux font quatre; Selon Archim`ede, tout corps plong´e dans un liquide subit une pouss´ee verticale, dirig´ee de bas en haut, ´egale au ` 0 degr´es Celsius. poids du fluide d´eplac´e; L’eau g`ele a The present expresses a general, eternal truth: Le ciel est bleu; Il importe de bien maˆıtriser sa langue car elle est le v´ehicule de la pens´ee; L’argent ne fait pas le bonheur. An event that has just taken place may be referred to in the present tense: ` l’instant La partie de foot se termine tout juste (has just ended); Elle arrive a (She has just arrived).
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The present reconstructs the text, dialogue or description of a novel or film: Le film Babette s’en va-t-en guerre reconstitue en images les activit´es comiques d’une agente secr`ete au cours de la deuxi`eme guerre mondiale; La ` Oran en Alg´erie; Le peste de Albert Camus d´ecrit les ravages d’une peste a personnage principal n’accepte pas le cadeau et part tout de suite; Dans le premier chapitre, Sophie r´epond s`echement: “Impossible.” The present is used in hypotheses with si, and the second part of the sentence is in the future: Si vous voulez voir cette exposition, vous devrez faire la queue. Depuis, voil` a, voici and il y a usually involve a present tense when in English one would expect a past tense: Voil` a/Voici/Il y a au moins deux ans que je connais Camille (I have known Camille for at least two years [and still know her]); Armelle habite a ` Chicago depuis six mois (Armelle has lived in Chicago for six months [and still lives there]). But, in the negative: Je n’ai pas ´et´e ici depuis dix ans (I haven’t been here for ten years). Similarly, with cela/c¸a fait: Cela/c¸a fait trois mois qu’Adrienne ne vient pas (That’s three months that Adrienne hasn’t come). With la premi`ere fois, the present tense is used where in English the perfect tense would be required: C’est la premi`ere que je te vois ici (It’s the first time ` Qu´ebec (It’s the first time I’ve seen you here); C’est la premi`ere fois que je viens a I’ve been to Quebec). It is worthwhile comparing the present tense in this construction with the imperfect: C’´etait la premi`ere fois que je voyais l` a tous mes amis (It was the first time I had seen all my friends there). Venir de reflects a past idea in English: Elle vient d’arriver (She has just arrived). Note that the imperfect of venir in this construction is used in a similar way: Elle venait d’arriver (She had just arrived). It is to be added that a French speaker would not use venir de with venir but would ` l’instant. doubtless use, for instance, arriver, as in Elle arrive a
14 Perfect tense and agreement of the past participle / Le pass´e compos´e et l’accord du participe pass´e Below is a simple dialogue concerning a female who enters a pharmacy after an accident involving a cyclist and an automobile. She herself is also slightly injured as she goes to the scene. She consults the pharmacist. The passage illustrates the uses of the perfect tense. Note especially how the past participle varies according to whether the verb is conjugated with avoir or ˆetre. Observe also how the past participle changes with reflexive verbs and may be modified according to the preceding direct object. There is agreement with bless´ee, for me is the direct object, but no agreement with cass´e, for me is the indirect object. There is no agreement with consacr´e either. Again, the m’(e) is indirect, and temps, the preceding direct object, is masculine. Do not confuse the perfect tense with the passive voice (la plaie est infect´ee). Some translations are given. Dialogue (` a la pharmacie locale) ` qui le tour ? Pharmacienne : Bonjour, mesdames messieurs ! A Cliente : Bonjour madame, je suis arriv´ ee avant le jeune homme. C’est mon tour ! Pharmacienne : Que puis-je faire pour vous ? Cliente : J’ai fait du v´elo ce matin et je me suis bless´ ee au coude et au genou, mais je ne me suis pas cass´e la jambe, heureusement ! Est-il possible de me donner quelque chose pour me soulager ? Pharmacienne : A¨ıe a¨ıe a¨ıe ! Comment avez-vous fait ¸ca ? Avez-vous rec¸u les premiers soins sur le lieu de l’accident ? Cliente : Non, pas du tout, nous avons grimp´ e jusqu’au sommet de la montagne ! L` a haut, je n’ai pas vu d’infirmi`ere ou de m´edecin. Une voiture a renvers´e un cycliste. Je suis all´ ee chercher les secours sans me pr´eoccuper de mon cas. Je ne suis pas si douillette. Pharmacienne : Voil` a, voil` a . . . j’arrive ! Asseyez-vous sur ce fauteuil ! Attendez un instant ! Nous allons voir ¸ca de plus pr`es. La plaie est infect´ee. Vous avez eu une profonde entaille [gash]. Je vous conseille de voir cela avec votre m´edecin r´ef´erent [usual]. Cliente : J’ai t´el´ephon´e ce matin. Le carnet de rendez-vous de mon m´edecin traitant [usual] a ´et´e tr`es charg´ e. La secr´etaire m´edicale m’a
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` apr`esins´er´ee entre deux rendez-vous. J’ai fix´e ma consultation a demain . . . Pharmacienne : Non ! Non ! Non ! Vous ne pouvez pas rester dans cet ´etat. Voyons voir ! J’ai proc´ed´e a ` la d´esinfection de vos blessures. Je ` mon assistante d’appliquer une cr`eme apaisante et vais demander a de vous faire un pansement avant de voir votre m´edecin. Cliente : Merci beaucoup madame. Cela m’a soulag´ ee. Pharmacienne : Vous avez ´et´e vaccin´ee contre le t´etanos ? L’administration de vaccin contre une maladie infectieuse comme le t´etanos est strictement recommand´ee. Il s’agit d’une maladie grave, souvent mortelle, qu’il convient de prendre au s´erieux. ` Cliente : Oui j’ai ´et´e vaccin´ee, mais mes vaccins n’ont pas ´ et´ e mis a jour. J’ai la ferme intention de m’en occuper. Pharmacienne : Vous avez eu des h´ematomes [bruises] un peu partout sur le bras et la jambe. Ne vous faites pas de souci. Tout cela rentrera ` moins que votre m´edecin dans l’ordre dans quelques semaines. A ne d´etecte un autre probl`eme qu’on ne peut voir qu’en faisant une radiographie [x ray] ou une ´echographie [scan]. Cliente : Je vous remercie beaucoup du temps que vous m’avez consacr´ e. Au revoir Madame ! ` votre service ! Bonne journ´ee. Au suivant . . . Pharmacienne : A
As with all compound tenses in French, variations in the ending of the past participle required by agreement caused by a whole host of features leads to much dismay, not just for foreign learners of French, but also for French speakers themselves. Hanse and Blampain (2005, p. 415) quote Bescherelle, thus highlighting this perennial source of linguistic torment (our emphasis): Nos auteurs ont fait et font encore aujourd’hui varier ce participe dans certains cas, tandis qu’ils le laissent invariable dans d’autres. De l` a les difficult´es assez grandes qu’offre la syntaxe de cette partie importante du discours. On a ´ecrit sur ce sujet des trait´es sp´eciaux ; on a rempli des volumes entiers de r`egles, d’exceptions, d’exemples et d’applications, et, avec tout cet attirail de science, comme le dit L’Encyclop´edie moderne, on a embrouill´e une mati`ere fort simple ; on en a fait la torture de l’enfance, l’´epouvante des jeunes personnes et le d´esespoir des ´etrangers.
The common failure to observe agreements with the past participle leads to humorous comments, such as the following by Pierre Part, taken from T´el´erama (No. 3151, June 5–11, 2010, p. 6; the correct form is in parentheses): “R´esolution : Ma d´ecision est pris(e), et bien que douloureux(se), ne saurait ˆetre remis(e) en question. Dor´enavant, comme la plupart des journalistes, pr´esentateurs, hommes politiques, artistes, ´ecrivains, etc. parlant sur nos m´edias, je n’accorderai plus les participes pass´es et adjectifs au f´eminin. Voil` a, la chose est dit(e) et mˆeme ´ecrit(e).” Although much of this chapter is devoted to the agreement of the past participle, the initial remarks apply to the composition of the perfect tense,
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while, later on, there is a section on circumstances in which the perfect tense occurs. In English, the perfect tense is made up of the auxiliary verb to have and a past participle: I have spoken. In French, the construction is similar but with one significant difference: the French perfect tense is composed of avoir and a past participle, but also, in numerous cases, of the auxiliary verb ˆetre and a past participle. We shall first deal with those verbs that are conjugated with avoir, and afterwards (see 2 below) with those conjugated with ˆetre.
14.1 The perfect tense formed with avoir The four main groups of verbs are conjugated thus in the perfect tense: –er verbs (chanter) j’ai chant´e tu as chant´e il/elle a chant´e nous avons chant´e vous avez chant´e ils/elles ont chant´e –re verbs (vendre) j’ai vendu tu as vendu il/elle a vendu nous avons vendu vous avez vendu ils/elles ont vendu
I have sung you have sung he/she/it has sung we have sung you have sung they have sung I have sold you have sold he/she/it has sold we have sold you have sold they have sold
–ir verbs (finir) j’ai fini tu as fini il/elle a fini nous avons fini vous avez fini ils/elles ont fini
I have finished you have finished he/she/it has finished we have finished you have finished they have finished
–oir verbs (recevoir) j’ai rec¸u I have received tu as rec¸u you have received il/elle a rec¸u he/she/it has received nous avons rec¸u we have received vous avez rec¸u you have received ils/elles ont rec¸u they have received
It is observed that verbs with an infinitive ending in –er have a past participle in –´e. Verbs with an infinitive ending in –ir have a past participle ending in –i. Most verbs with an infinitive ending in –re have a past participle ending in –u, but not always since, for instance, the past participle of prendre is pris, and the past participle of ´eteindre is ´eteint. Many verbs with an infinitive ending in –oir have an ending in –u, with the last letter of the stem being ¸c, but not always, witness pouvoir (pu) and vouloir (voulu). (See also Chapter 15 on irregular past participles.) The past participles listed above are used in other tenses of the indicative mood: pluperfect (j’avais chant´e), conditional (j’aurais chant´e), future in the past (j’aurai chant´e), past anterior (j’eus chant´e); and in tenses of the subjunctive mood: perfect (j’aie chant´e), pluperfect (j’eusse chant´e). When verbs are conjugated with avoir, they are considered to be transitive (see Chapter 32 on transitive and intransitive verbs). That is to say, they take
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a direct object: J’ai chant´e une chanson; Marie-Odile a mang´e un sandwich; Lucile a envoy´e un mail. In these straightforward cases, the past participles do not vary. The past participle does vary, however, when the perfect tense is in a subordinate clause and the relative pronoun (que) refers back to a direct object: a chant´ee plusieurs fois (Antoine sang/has Antoine a chant´e une chanson que j’ai d´ej` sung a song that I have sung several times). In this sentence, the subordinate clause is que j’ai chant´ee, and the relative pronoun que relates back to chanson. The past participle chant´ee must agree with what is called the preceding direct object which, in this case, is feminine. In fact, the past participle in this construction functions like an adjective. If one approached this construction in English, by way of an explanation, one could say: The song I have sung. How do I have it? I have it sung. In other words, the song is sung, sung ending up as a kind of adjective. This explanation seems involved, but an understanding of this adjectival principle is important. Furthermore, numerous native French speakers find this construction difficult to understand, so we are in good company if we fail to grasp it at the first attempt. A striking instance of this failure to make an agreement may be found in Georges Brassens’s song “La premi`ere fille que j’ai pris dans mes bras”. Again, if a young person says “La voiture que j’ai conduit,” a wellintentioned parent could easily repeat the sentence stressing “conduite.” Further examples of this agreement with the preceding direct object: la fille que j’ai rencontr´ee ce matin les garc¸ons que j’ai rencontr´es ce matin les filles que j’ai rencontr´ees ce matin
the girl (whom) I met this morning the boys (whom) I met this morning the girls (whom) I met this morning
In the first of these three cases, an e is added to rencontr´e in order to make an agreement with fille, a feminine singular noun. In the second case, an s is added to rencontr´e in order to make an agreement with garc¸ons, a masculine plural noun. In the third case, an es is added to rencontr´e in order to make an agreement with filles, a feminine plural noun. It becomes clear here that the past participle of rencontrer, and that of all other fully functioning verbs, has four forms. Unfortunately, the need for agreement of the past participle with a preceding direct object does not stop here. Pronouns as direct objects also have a repercussion on the past participle. This may appear difficult, but similarity with an agreement with preceding nouns is helpful. The past participle agrees with a direct-object pronoun, and it does not have to be in a subordinate clause. The following examples illustrate this feature. Speaking of a boy, one would say: Je l’ai rencontr´e ce matin (I met him this morning). Speaking of boys, one would say: Je les ai rencontr´es ce matin (I met them this
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morning). Speaking of a girl, one would say: Je l’ai rencontr´ee ce matin (I met her this morning). Speaking of girls, one would say: Je les ai rencontr´ees ce matin (I met them this morning). Again, the verb rencontrer, as with all other fully functioning verbs, has four forms in its past participle when a preceding direct-object pronoun is involved. One should be careful to distinguish between a direct object and an indirect object for, in the latter case, no agreement is made (see Chapter 46 on pronouns for the distinction between direct and indirect pronouns). Briefly, and this illustration merely adumbrates the full treatment of pronouns in the appropriate chapter, compare the two following sentences: Je l’ai rencontr´ee ce matin (I met her this morning) and Je lui ai parl´e ce matin (I spoke to her this morning). In the first case, the past participle agrees with l’ (la) since it is a feminine direct object; in the second case, there is no agreement since the pronoun is an indirect object, however feminine it is. When the pronoun en precedes the past participle, the latter remains invariable: J’ai cueilli des framboises et j’en ai mang´e (I picked some strawberries and I ate some of them). The same comment applies to the neuter pronoun ` parcourir est plus grande que je ne l’avais cru (The distance le, l’: La distance a to travel is greater than I thought). However, if the pronoun en is preceded by an adverb of quantity (autant, beaucoup, combien, moins, plus), the past participle can agree in gender and number with the preceding noun or remain invariable: Des limonades, combien j’en ai bues/bu (I don’t know how many lemonades I’ve drunk). Difficulties arise over agreement when quantities are involved. Does the past participle agree with the singular quantity or the plural that follows it? For instance, there is no reason why rencontr´e should agree only with manifestants or only with foule: La foule de manifestants que j’ai rencontr´ee; La foule de manifestants que j’ai rencontr´es. Similarly, with two singular nouns but differing genders: La moiti´e du travail que j’ai termin´ee; La moiti´e du travail que j’ai termin´e. `, donner a `, laisser a `, porter a ` + infinitive. Special cases arise with avoir a ` when there is a following Does one make an agreement with avoir/donner a infinitive? This depends on whether the direct object relates to avoir or the following infinitive. Compare the two following sentences: les affronts que la pauvre Lucile a eu a ` subir and la peine que j’ai eue a ` la convaincre. In the first case, affronts is the direct object of subir, while, in the second case, peine is the direct object of avoir. Similarly, and in the same order: les lettres que je leur ai laiss´e a ` signer and les lettres que je leur ai laiss´ees a ` signer; ` ´etudier and la lec¸on que je lui ai donn´ee a ` and la lec¸on que je lui ai donn´e a ´etudier. It is clear that, if there is an auxiliary verb preceding the infinitive, there is no agreement, a fact causing uncertainty among French speakers. The direct object in these cases depends on the infinitive, and not on the
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` lui donner; la tˆ auxiliary verb: les euros que j’ai consenti a ache que j’ai pu accomplir. But, in the following case, agreement occurs with the reflexive: les arguments ` d´emolir. qu’elle s’est acharn´ee a Much ink has been spilt over the question of laisser + infinitive. Does the verb laisser vary according to the preceding direct object? It seems that invariability is to be recommended, just as faire followed by an infinitive remains invariable: les personnes que j’ai fait venir; les ´el`eves que la professeure a fait ´etudier; Je les ai laiss´e punir; Ils nous l’avaient laiss´e croire; Ils nous avaient laiss´e croire que . . . However one does come across Je les ai laiss´es dire que . . . Yet again, if the verb laisser is reflexive, agreement would take place in Elle s’est laiss´ee vivre, but not in Elle s’est laiss´e conduire, for, here, elle has not performed the action.
14.2 The perfect tense formed with eˆ tre There are many verbs that are not conjugated with avoir. As noted in the first paragraph, a large group are conjugated with ˆetre, and here the past participle varies, a phenomenon that also appears in Italian with the verb essere, but not in Spanish. In this respect, past and compound tenses in Spanish are easier to manage. French verbs conjugated with ˆetre fall largely into two categories: (1) intransitive verbs associated with movement or change in a particular state and (2) pronominal or reflexive verbs. Verbs of movement include aller, arriver, d´ec´eder, ´echoir (to fall due, of a payment; a verb both defective and comparatively rare), ´eclore (to bloom, of a flower), entrer, mourir, naˆıtre, partir, rester, retourner, sortir, tomber, venir. This list also includes the above verbs with prefixes: entrer > rentrer; naˆıtre > renaˆıtre; partir > repartir; sortir > ressortir; tomber > retomber; venir > advenir, devenir, revenir, parvenir, subvenir, survenir. These verbs are conjugated in the following manner: je suis all´e(e) tu es all´e(e) il est all´e elle est all´ee nous somme all´e(e)s vous ˆetes all´e(e)s
ils sont all´es elles sont all´ees
I went (male/female) you went (male/female) he/it went she/it went we went (males, males and females, females alone with extra e) you went (male, male and female, females alone with extra e, single male or female when the latter has an extra e) they went (males, males and females) they went (only females)
A substantial list of reflexive verbs is to be found in Chapter 33 on reflexive verbs. Suffice it therefore to offer here just a few verbs of this type since
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the purpose of this section is one of agreement with the verb ˆetre, and here are included some irregular verbs. It should be added here that most verbs used reflexively may be used non-reflexively, for instance battre and cacher: s’en aller, se battre, se blesser, se cacher, se coiffer, s’´evanouir, s’habiller, se laver, se lever, se maquiller, se passer, se quereller, se raser, se rappeler, se servir, se souvenir, se taire. There follows a model in the perfect tense of se cacher: Je me suis cach´e(e) dans le placard Tu t’es cach´e(e) dans le placard Il s’est cach´e dans le placard Elle s’est cach´ee dans le placard Nous nous sommes cach´e(e)s dans le placard Vous vous ˆetes cach´e(e)(s) dans le placard Ils se sont cach´es dans le placard Elles se sont cach´ees dans le placard
I hid in the closet/cupboard You hid in the closet/cupboard He/It hid in the closet/cupboard She/It hid in the closet/cupboard We hid in the closet/cupboard You hid in the closet/cupboard They hid in the closet/cupboard They hid in the closet/cupboard
Comments on the above: Cach´e Cach´ee Cach´e Cach´ee Cach´es Cach´ees Cach´es Cach´ees
refers to a single male refers to a single female refers to a single male or male animal refers to a single female or female animal refers to more than one male, or more than one male and female, and animals refers to more than one female, and female animals refers to more than one male, or more than one male and female, and animals refers to more than one female and animals
It is a traditional rule that certain intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively, are conjugated with avoir when they express an action, and with ˆetre when they convey a state resulting from a completed action. The fineness of meaning here can confuse even many native French speakers. Such verbs are: aborder, accourir, accroˆıtre, apparaˆıtre, baisser, cesser, changer, d´eborder, d´echoir (R3), d´eg´en´erer, d´em´enager, descendre, diminuer, disparaˆıtre, embellir, empirer, grandir, monter, paraˆıtre, passer, ressusciter, vieillir: ` dix La factrice est pass´ee a heures. La factrice a pass´e depuis dix minutes. ` Marine qui a J’ai t´el´ephon´e a vite accouru.
The mailwoman came by at ten. The mailwoman has been gone ten minutes. I phoned Marine who came quickly.
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Marine est accourue pour me rassurer. Depuis lors Camille a d´echu de jour en jour. Il y a longtemps que Jean est d´echu de ce droit. Sabrina a disparu subitement. Sabrina est disparue depuis quelques jours.
Marine arrived quickly to reassure me. From then Camille lost strength every day. It’s been a long time that Jean has lost this right. Sabrina disappeared suddenly. Sabrina has been gone a few days.
When certain verbs are used transitively they are conjugated with avoir. When they are used intransitively they are conjugated with ˆetre. The main ones here are: descendre, (re)monter, rentrer, (res)sortir. Examples with avoir: Tu as descendu les valises ? Virginie a d´ej` a mont´e les verres. Tu as rentr´e les chaises du jardin, ch´eri ? Maman a sorti les meilleurs couverts.
Have you brought the cases down? Virginie has already brought up the glasses. Have you brought the chairs in from the garden, darling? Mum has brought out the best cutlery.
Examples with ˆetre: Armelle est descendue trop rapidement. R´emy est mont´e comme un alpiniste. Camille, tu es rentr´ee tr`es tard hier soir. Nous sommes tous sortis pour aller au cin´ema.
Armelle came down too quickly. R´emy climbed up like a mountaineer. Camille, you came home very late last night. We all went out to go to the cinema.
It is important to observe when verbs are used intransitively, as in the following sentence. One could, mistakenly, think that the verb marcher below is transitive, but this is not the case, hence no agreement: Les trois heures que Jeanne a march´e paraissaient tr`es longues. Likewise with durer, r´egner and dormir: les ann´ees que cela a dur´e; la p´eriode que la reine a r´egn´e; les trois heures que j’ai dormi. A conjunction like pendant que is implied here. Reflexive pronouns may be direct or indirect objects, and here agreement with the past participle is to be observed, although the less well tutored French speakers have serious difficulty here. Compare the two following sentences: Elle s’est lav´ee (She washed [herself ]); Elle s’est lav´e les mains (She washed her hands). In the first case, the reflexive pronoun se functions as a direct object, so there is agreement with the past participle (i.e. an extra e). In the second case, the reflexive pronoun functions as an indirect object, so there is no agreement. A second comparison should make the difference
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clearer. It entails the use of the verbs suivre and succ´eder, which are often used in grammar classes in French-speaking countries to illustrate agreement and non-agreement in past participles: Plusieurs rois se sont suivis rapidement (Several kings followed each other in quick succession) and Plusieurs rois se sont succ´ed´e . . . (Several kings followed each other in quick succession). The verb suivre takes a direct object and therefore attracts a plural agreement with an s `) so there is while, in contrast, succ´eder takes an indirect object (succ´eder a no agreement. An understanding of the agreement comes about with the awareness of the difference between the accusative and dative cases, or direct and indirect objects. Impersonal verbs are conjugated with avoir: Il a plu, Il a neig´e, Il a tonn´e tr`es fort. When verbs are used impersonally, they follow the same pattern of conjugation with ˆetre and avoir: Il est arriv´e un malheur (A misfortune has taken place) but Il a convenu de partir (It was wise to leave). The verb convenir provokes some consternation in French-speaking countries, since some uncertainty reigns over the use of ˆetre and avoir. Convenir is conjugated with both these verbs, and the differing use depends upon the meaning intended. According to the traditional rule, when it means to suit, avoir is the “correct” form, and is used in all registers: L’hˆ otel nous a convenu. ` Luc. Ces cours ont convenu a Nos dispositions lui auraient certainement convenu.
The hotel suited us. These classes suited Luc. Our arrangements would certainly have suited him.
When it means to agree, ˆetre is the “correct” form, and is used in R3 language. It is observed by many careful writers: Nos enfants sont convenus de se r´eunir au parc / du prochain rendez-vous. ´milie est convenue de mes E arguments.
Our children agreed to meet in the park / over the next meeting. ´ Emilie accepted my arguments.
The second expression is often reduced to: comme convenu. This said, nowadays, one may use convenir, and without hesitation, with the auxiliary verb avoir in all circumstances except in the impersonal expressions Il est convenu que / Comme il a ´et´e convenu (It was agreed that / As was agreed). The verb demeurer also causes considerable uncertainty over the choice of ˆetre or avoir. In the sense of delaying, taking time, avoir is the preferred verb: Sa plaie a demeur´e longtemps ` gu´erir. a L’´ecrivaine n’a demeur´e qu’un ` composer son roman. mois a
Her wound took a long time to heal. The writer only took a month to write the novel.
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But when it signifies to stop or remain (in a place), it is conjugated with ˆetre: St´ephanie est demeur´ee St´ephanie remained silent on hearing muette en ´ecoutant ces these words. paroles. Ma lettre est demeur´ee sans My letter remained without reply. r´eponse. Depuis leur d´epart, la maison Since their departure, the house has est demeur´ee vide. remained empty. It is sometimes unclear whether the past participles of certain verbs agree with the direct object. Such is the case with dormir and vivre: Combien d’heures as-tu dormi ? (How many hours have you slept?). Here, the preposition pendant is implied, so that heures is not the direct object, although one could legitimately argue that it is. In the case of vivre, there seems to be a choice between agreement and non-agreement. Compare les ann´ees que nous avons v´ecu and les heures de joie que nous avons v´ecues.
14.3 Uses of the perfect tense (see Chapter 23 for the contrasts between the perfect, past definite and imperfect tenses) The most dominant feature of the perfect tense is that, as a tense referring to events of the past, it conveys an openness. In other words, it expresses actions and thoughts that are often incomplete and that have repercussions on the present moment. In this sense, it resembles the English perfect tense which is less used than the French pass´e compos´e, since the pass´e compos´e frequently occurs where in English the past definite is used: Franc¸oise et Aur´elien ont achet´e une belle maison. Ils ` ont encore des travaux a faire. Papa n’a pas eu le temps de d´ejeuner aujourd’hui.
Franc¸oise and Aur´elien have bought a lovely house. They still have a lot of work to do. Pop/Dad hasn’t had / didn’t have the time to eat his (midday) meal / lunch today.
The pass´e compos´e is the tense used in conversation when evoking past events, even distant ones: Tu sais que Napol´eon est n´e en Corse en 1769 ? Allˆ o, Marie ! J’ai eu un accident de voiture hier, mais ce n’est pas grave.
Did you know that Napoleon was born in Corsica in 1769? Hi, Marie! I had an automobile/car accident yesterday, but it’s not serious.
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It is the tense used for informal letter writing, e-mails and texting: Cher ami Louis, J’ai bien rec¸u tes quelques mots hier. Je n’ai pas r´epondu tout de suite parce que . . . Votre mail est arriv´e hier et je me d´epˆeche de . . . dsl 2 pa avoir rep avan (d´esol´e de ne pas avoir r´epondu avant)
Dear Louis, I certainly received your letter yesterday. I didn’t reply immediately because . . .
I got your email yesterday and I hasten to . . . Sorry not to have replied before
The pass´e compos´e narrates a series of events: ` la fin du match, la journaliste A est descendue sur le court de tennis, elle a tendu le micro au jeune champion et lui a pos´e beaucoup de questions. Puis, elle a pris des photos.
At the end of the match, the journalist went down onto the tennis court, held the mike out to the young champion, and asked him lots of questions. Then, she took some photos.
It is used with repetitive events: Sophie est folle ! Elle a vu ce film cinq fois !
Sophie is mad! She’s seen that film five times!
It expresses a limited duration: C´eline a fait son choix en un quart d’heure. Dans la Bible, il est dit que le D´eluge a dur´e pendant quarante jours et quarante nuits. Mon p`ere a longtemps ` l’´etranger comme travaill´e a conseiller militaire.
C´eline made her choice in a quarter of an hour. It is said in the Bible that the Flood lasted forty days and forty nights.
My father worked abroad for a long time as a military advisor.
It expresses preceding events which even have an effect on the future: Quand on a perdu sa carte bancaire, il faut tout de suite ` la banque. le signaler a
When you lose your bank card, you have to alert the bank straightaway.
The perfect tense can refer to the future, particularly when a future expression of time is used:
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J’ai fini dans un instant. Si, dans une heure, Pierre n’est pas revenu, tu me rappelleras.
I’ll be finished in a moment. If Pierre isn’t back in a hour, please call me.
The past participle alone occurs when it follows the full perfect tense: Je l’ai vue et remerci´ee; C’est un roman que j’ai lu et relu. It can be repeated twice: Tito a r´esist´e au fascisme et au stalinisme, pr´eserv´e la souverainet´e et l’unit´e de son pays, et d´efendu l’id´ee du non-alignement (Le Monde magazine, April 24, 2010).
14.4 Past participles used independently of the perfect tense When past participles are used as adjectives, they agree with the nouns they qualify: Arriv´ee au coin de la rue, ´ Emilie jeta un coup d’œil en arri`ere; Surprises par le mauvais temps, les deux filles ont couru s’abriter sous un arbre; Des bruits venus de loin les ont beaucoup effray´es. Certain past participles, together with ´etant donn´e, function as prepositions: approuv´e, attendu, certifi´e, ci-annex´e, ci-inclus, ci-joint, compris, y compris, ` part, ˆot´e, ou¨ı, pass´e, quitt´e, suppos´e, vu. non compris, entendu, except´e, fourni, mis a Normally, they precede the noun and are invariable; however, a few may also follow the noun, agreeing in number and gender with it. Past participle as preposition preceding the noun: Approuv´e les corrections ci-dessus; Vu les cons´equences de ses actions, Adeline d´ecida de quitter la ´tant donn´e la situation actuelle, la guerre ne semble pas in´evitable; maison; E Y compris ma tante, on sera cinq; Vous trouverez ci-joint la quittance; Sitˆot quitt´e la ville, nous ´etions en pleine campagne; Vu sous cet angle, l’affaire est tout autre. Past participle as preposition following the noun: Une petite minorit´e except´ee, tous les spectateurs se sont bien comport´es au match; Sophie a vendu toutes ses affaires, sa voiture comprise (note: no y); Veuillez trouver les pi`eces ci-jointes. The Acad´emie franc¸aise, however, admits both agreement and non-agreement with ci-inclus: Vous trouverez ci-inclus une copie; Vous trouverez ci-incluse une lettre de votre p`ere. In certain cases (fourni, quitt´e, rec¸u, refait), one has the impression that the auxiliary avoir is implied and that the direct object follows the past participle, hence its invariability: Repeint la fac¸ade (i.e., J’ai repeint la fac¸ade); Rec¸u la somme de (i.e., J’ai rec¸u la somme de); Quitt´e la banlieue, ` toute vitesse (i.e., Quand nous avons quitt´e la banlieue / Apr`es nous avons fil´e a avoir quitt´e la banlieue). Fini often agrees but may remain invariable, since the past participle may be considered elliptically: Finies les vacances but also Fini les vacances (C’est fini, les vacances); Fini la journ´ee / les manœuvres.
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Pass´e offers a choice when it is a question of time (i.e., the hour): Pass´e cinq heures, les bureaux ferment; Il est dix heures pass´ees. But beyond this feature, it seems wiser to leave it invariable, although examples exist ` dire que; Pass´e la premi`ere of variability: Pass´e la surprise, il me restait a ` maison, nous entrˆ ames dans le village; Pass´e la cinquantaine, j’ai commenc´e a avoir des soucis de sant´e; Pass´ee la porte ouverte, je suis entr´ee dans la cuisine. The verb cr´eer can end up with three es: L’entreprise/l’œuvre qu’il a cr´e´ee. A marked difference between the French use of the past participle and the English present participle: Many past participles in French associated with posture or position correspond to present participles in English. For instance: accoud´e, appuy´e, juch´e, accroupi, assis, pench´e, adoss´e, blotti, pendu, agenouill´e, couch´e, perch´e, allong´e, inclin´e, tapi: Ils s’accroupissaient, adoss´es (leaning) les uns aux autres; J’ai trouv´e Sophie agenouill´ee (kneeling) devant son fils bless´e; Elle est rest´ee assise (sitting) pendant une bonne demi-heure; J’ai trouv´e le perroquet juch´e (perching/perched) sur son perchoir; La lampe ´etait pendue (hanging) au plafond; La pauvre bˆete ´etait accroupie/blottie/tapie (crouching) dans le foss´e.
14.5 A note on the pass´e surcompos´e The pass´e surcompos´e, which is a kind of double compound tense in the past, requires some comment, however limited. It marks an event or thought that immediately precedes another event or thought expressed in the pass´e compos´e. It is a little-used tense. The present authors for example do not use it, since it is not really necessary, and is supplanted by the pluperfect tense. Here are two examples: D`es que Oc´eane a eu prononc´e ces mots, un concert de protestations s’est ´el´ev´e dans la foule. ` peine Axelle a-t-elle ´et´e A sortie que la pluie s’est mise ` tomber avec violence. a
As soon as Oc´eane had pronounced these words, a wave of protests rose from the crowd. Hardly had Axelle gone out than the rain began to pour down.
The pass´e surcompos´e has very little currency these days, and may be occa´va sionally heard in country districts. It is not included as a tense in Marie-E de Villers’s dictionary. The Nouvelle grammaire du franc¸ais (Delatour 2004, p. 129) states unequivocally: “C’est un temps peu employ´e.” Against this must be weighed the remarks by Hanse and Blampain: “L’usage est courant dans la langue parl´ee,” followed by: “Il est attest´e depuis longtemps dans la langue litt´eraire” (2005, p. 431). Grevisse and Goosse quote Hugo, Daudet and Renan (in the nineteenth century) and Julien Green, Butor and Duras (in the twentieth), who all resort to it (2008, pp. 1040–1041).
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In the passive, the pass´e surcompos´e becomes most cumbersome, lacking all elegance: Aussitˆot que le paquet a eu e´t´e envoy´e – a construction not recommended. A concluding remark: the pass´e surcompos´e is a tense to be observed and recognized as such when it occurs, possibly idiosyncratically, in literary writing. It does not command sufficient diffusion and acceptability in France, and doubtless even less outside France, for it to justify here any extensive and detailed treatment. Notwithstanding these remarks, it should be repeated that Grevisse and Blampain both seem to suggest that it is used in spoken discourse, although the present authors have not found it in Paris, Grenoble or Nantes – a reasonable cross section of France.
15 Irregular past participles / Les participes pass´es irr´eguliers The passage below narrates a visit paid to the enchanting monuments of ancient Rome. Composed in the perfect tense, and sent by a friend to another friend, it contains a range of irregular past participles which are highlighted and followed by their corresponding infinitive. Some translations are provided. Alice is a real Italian person living in Rome, unlike the fictitious Alice of Alice nel paese delle meraviglie (Alice in Wonderland).
Rome, la Ville ´eternelle ` Rome et nous a convaincus Alice nous a accueillis (accueillir) chez elle a (convaincre) d’explorer les coins et les recoins de la Ville ´eternelle. Nous avons rec¸u (recevoir) le meilleur accueil de notre hˆ otesse. Nous avons pu (pouvoir) appr´ecier l’hospitalit´e, partager le plaisir de la table et de la convivialit´e des Italiens. Nous avons mang´e et bu (boire) des sp´ecialit´es italiennes aux saveurs suaves. Sur les bons conseils d’Alice, nous avons march´e pendant des heures dans le d´edale [labyrinth] de ruelles [small streets] de la capitale italienne. Nous avons parcouru (parcourir) le Colis´ee de Rome et poursuivi (poursuivre) notre marche jusqu’` a la basilique San Giovanni in Laterano. Notre chemin ´etait parsem´e [strewn] de palmiers, de cerisiers du Japon en pleine floraison, de ruines romaines, de statues et de monuments historiques. La basilique nous a offert (offrir) un ensemble d’œuvres qui ont ´et´e peintes (peindre) par d’illustres artistes. Les fresques et les mosa¨ıques murales ont ´et´e tr`es bien entretenues (entretenir). Apr`es la visite de la basilique, nous avons voulu (vouloir) nous rendre au Colis´ee de Rome. Cette figure embl´ematique [iconic] de la Rome antique ´evoque les comˆtre que bats d’animaux ou de gladiateurs dans cet imposant amphith´ea nous avons d´ecouvert (d´ecouvrir). Nous y sommes rest´es assis (asseoir) une bonne demi-heure. Le Panth´eon, ancien temple romain, a ´et´e construit (construire) avec une coupole grandiose qui a servi (servir) de mod`ele pour la basilique Saint-Pierre au Vatican. Des chefs-d’œuvre qui ont ´et´e construits (construire) pour l’´eternit´e t´emoignent [bear witness] du g´enie des hommes, de l’´eclat des d´ecors et des splendeurs du temps pass´e. Les grandes places de Rome ont valu (valoir) le d´eplacement. Elles
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sont toutes orn´ees [adorned] de fontaines monumentales comme un bijou serti [set in] de pierres pr´ecieuses. La plus imposante, la Fontana di Trevi, est incontournable. Elle vaut le coup d’ˆetre vue (voir). Cette source jaillissante [gushing forth] est un chef-d’œuvre architectural unique en son genre. Elle a ´et´e bˆ atie au pied d’une vaste et somptueuse r´esidence. ` La Fontaine de Trevi est compos´ee d’´el´ements symboliques propres a l’art baroque qui a mis (mettre) en sc`ene Neptune, le dieu romain de la mer debout sur son char, entour´e de d´elicates statues. Federico Fellini, le cin´easte et sc´enariste italien, a rendu cette fontaine c´el`ebre dans la Dolce Vita. Nous avons maintenu (maintenir) le rythme de nos visites jusque sur le parvis [main square (of church)] de la Basilique Saint Pierre o` u le Pape Jean Paul II avait fait un discours en espagnol. Notre exp´erience de l’Italie, acquise (acqu´erir) par des visites r´eguli`eres, nous a ´emus (´emouvoir) au souvenir des d´etails pittoresques et savoureux des places, des ´eglises et d’autres monuments. Nous avons v´ecu (vivre) un s´ejour enchanteur et ´etions ravis de notre beau p´eriple [tour]. La richesse du patrimoine historique, culturel et architectural a conquis (conqu´erir) notre cœur. Les secrets de ce pays chaleureux et ` mesure des visites que nous vivant se d´evoilent [unfolds] au fur et a avons faites (faire).
It seems helpful to place all the past participles together as a unit rather than scatter them through the chapter on irregular verbs (Chapter 30), although in this chapter constant reference is made to them. Consider the comments at the end of the list as well. Before listing the irregular past participles, we make a comment on the agreement required with the preceding direct object. Many French speakers fail to make the agreement in the following sentences, and this failure is particularly noticeable in speech, since if the final letter is a consonant it is sounded when an e or es is added to the past participle. Two lists appear here, one indicating R1 and the second R2. Asterisked past participles below refer to comments at the end of this chapter. R1
R2
La tarte que j’ai fait est tr`es bonne. Ir`ene va envoyer la lettre qu’elle a ´ecrit ce matin. L’exp´erience que mon fils a acquis au Canada est tr`es utile. “O` u est la voiture ?” “Je l’ai mis au garage.” “Tu as trait les vaches ?” “Bien sˆ ur que je les ai trait.”
La tarte que j’ai faite est tr`es bonne. Ir`ene va envoyer la lettre qu’elle a ´ecrite ce matin. L’exp´erience que mon fils a acquise au Canada est tr`es utile. “O` u est la voiture ?” “Je l’ai mise au garage.” “Tu as trait les vaches ?” “Bien sˆ ur que je les ai traites.”
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Here is a full list of irregular past participles with occasional comments, which especially point out cognate verbs that have different prefixes but that function in the same way. Highly defective verbs are not included, except if they do have a past participle which has some currency. At the end of this list are included patterns which allow us to group together quite a large number of irregular verbs, and one must question how irregular some of these groups are: abattre (see battre), absoudre = absous, s’abstenir (see tenir, but compounds tenses take ˆetre), abstraire (see traire), accourir (see courir, but compound tenses can take ˆetre), accroire (has no past participle, being very defective), accroˆıtre = accru (but compound tenses take both ˆetre and avoir, depending on meaning), accueillir (see cueillir), acqu´erir = acquis, adjoindre (see craindre), admettre (see mettre), aller = all´e (this past participle is regular, notwithstanding its numerous irregularities), apercevoir (see recevoir), apparaˆıtre (see paraˆıtre), appartenir (see tenir), apprendre (see prendre), assaillir = assailli, asseoir = assis, astreindre (see craindre), atteindre (see craindre), battre = battu, boire = bu, bouillir = bouilli, braire = brait (but little used, and has no feminine or plural form), ceindre (see craindre), circoncire (like suffire in all tenses but the past participle is circoncis), circonscrire (see ´ecrire), circonvenir (see tenir), clore (defective verb but the past participle clos is quite common), combattre (see battre), commettre (see mettre), comparaˆıtre (see connaˆıtre), complaire (see plaire), comprendre (see prendre), compromettre (see mettre), conclure = conclu, concourir (see courir), conduire = conduit, connaˆıtre = connu, conqu´erir (see acqu´erir), consentir (see mentir), construire (see conduire), contenir (see tenir), contraindre (see craindre), contredire (see dire), contrefaire (see faire), contrevenir (see tenir), convaincre (see vaincre), convenir (see tenir, but compound tenses take both ˆetre and avoir, depending on meaning), coudre = cousu, courir = couru, couvrir = couvert, craindre = craint, croire = cru (not to be confused with crˆ u, past participle of croˆıtre below), croˆıtre = crˆ u (see cru immediately above), cueillir = cueilli, cuire (see conduire), d´ebattre (see battre), d´ecevoir (see recevoir), d´echoir = d´echu (but compound tenses take both ˆetre and avoir, depending on meaning), d´ecoudre (see coudre), d´ecouvrir (see couvrir), d´ecrire (see ´ecrire), d´ecroˆıtre (see accroˆıtre), (se) d´edire (see dire, but compound tenses take ˆetre), d´eduire (see conduire), d´efaillir (see assaillir, but little used and parts are defective), d´efaire (see faire), d´ementir (see mentir, but it has a feminine past participle: d´ementie, unavailable for mentir), d´emettre (see mettre), d´epartir (see mentir but the past participle has a feminine: d´epartie), d´epeindre (see craindre), desservir (see servir), d´eteindre (see craindre), d´etenir (see tenir), d´etruire (see conduire), devenir (see tenir, but compound tenses take ˆetre), d´evˆetir (see vˆetir), devoir = dˆ u (but the feminine form is due; the masculine form dˆ u has a circumflex merely to differentiate it from the partitive article), dire = dit, disconvenir (see tenir; in compound tenses, takes ˆetre or avoir, depending on the meaning), disjoindre (see craindre), disparaˆıtre (see connaˆıtre), dissoudre (see absoudre), distraire (see traire), dormir = dormi (the feminine form dormie is rare but is quite possible: trois nuits mal dormies), s’´ebattre
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r´esoudre = r´esolu (r´esous exists but is little used), ressentir (see mentir, but has feminine form with e), resservir (see servir), ressortir∗ (see mentir, but compound tenses take ˆetre), se ressouvenir (see tenir, but compound tenses take ˆetre), restreindre (see craindre), r´esulter∗ = r´esult´e, revenir (see tenir, but compound tenses take ˆetre), revˆetir (see vˆetir), revivre (see vivre), revoir (see voir), rire = ri (has no feminine or plural form), rompre∗ = rompu, rouvrir (see couvrir), saillir = sailli, satisfaire (see faire), savoir = su, secourir (see courir), sentir (see mentir, but compound tenses have a feminine form), servir = servi, sortir = sorti, souffrir (see couvrir), soumettre (see mettre), sourire (see rire), souscrire (see ´ecrire), soustraire (see traire), soutenir (see tenir), se souvenir (see tenir, but compound tenses take ˆetre), subvenir (see tenir), suffir = suffi (but has neither feminine nor plural form), suivre = suivi, surprendre (see prendre), surseoir = sursis (feminine form is rare), survivre (see vivre), taire = tu, teindre (see craindre), tenir = tenu, traduire (see conduire), traire = trait, transcrire (see ´ecrire), transmettre (see mettre), transparaˆıtre (see connaˆıtre), tressaillir (see assaillir), vaincre = vaincu, valoir = valu, venir (see tenir, but compound tenses take ˆetre), vˆetir∗ = vˆetu, vivre = v´ecu, voir = vu, vouloir = voulu. There is less variety, and therefore less room for confusion, if one groups together many of these irregular verbs. Indeed, one may question the term “irregular” for the groups of past participles following certain patterns, like conduit, connu, couvert, craint, ´ecrit, menti, mis, pris, tenu, trait. Note that plu is the irregular past participle of both plaire and pleuvoir, hence the oddity: Il a plu qu’il ait plu (It has pleased that it has rained, i.e., It’s good that it has rained). ∗ It is wise to separate recouvert (re-covered [with a covering]) and recouvr´e (recovered, as of a sum of money, health). ∗ Ressorti has two meanings. Ressortir in the sense of to go out again is conjugated with ˆetre, and follows the sortir pattern, while ressortir in the sense of to be the responsibility / within the competence of is conjugated like the regular verb finir, and in this meaning it is conjugated with avoir. ∗ R´esulter is conjugated with avoir indicating action and ˆetre indicating state. Compare Du mal en a r´esult´e and Il en est r´esult´e du mal. ∗ The verb rompre is hardly irregular at all. Its past participle, rompu, fits the pattern of vendre. Its only irregularity is the third-person singular present tense: rompt. ∗ Vˆetir is rarely used except precisely in the past participle: vˆetu.
16 Past participles used as nouns / Les participes pass´es consid´er´es comme noms The passage below describes Aida, one of Verdi’s operas, that takes place annually in the delightful Italian city of Verona, of Romeo and Juliet fame. It illustrates the idiomatic use of past participles used as nouns. The past participles are highlighted. Some translations are provided. A¨ıda dans la belle V´erone Les ar`enes de V´erone sont aussi grandioses que le Colis´ee de Rome. ˆtre romain est tr`es bien sauvegard´e. La capacit´e Cet ancien amphith´ea d’accueil des ar`enes est ´enorme. Ce grand ´edifice circulaire peut contenir plus de 14 000 spectateurs. Le grand festival d’op´era qui se d´eroule chaque ´et´e dans un environnement remarquable attire bon nombre d’invit´es venant du monde entier, des visiteurs ainsi que des V´eronais et des V´eronaises. Les passionn´es d’op´era fr´equentent r´eguli`erement les ar`enes pendant l’´et´e. Les repr´esentations d’op´eras c´el`ebres comme A¨ıda, Le Barbier de S´eville, Carmen, Tosca, Madame Butterfly, Nabucco et bien d’autres repr´esentations ` maintes reprises font le vrai bonheur des spectateurs. En assistant a ` la repr´esentation de A¨ıda, l’op´era de Giuseppe Verdi, nous avons ´et´e a sous le charme magique de ce chef-d’œuvre monumental dans un cadre l´egendaire avec des d´ecors en trompe-l’œil [deceptive fac¸ades]. Des voix retentissantes dans la bonne acoustique des ar`enes, la mise en musique de l’œuvre accompagn´ee des chœurs d’op´era et de l’orchestre r´esonnent au plus profond de notre ˆetre. Verdi raconte une histoire d’amour entre Radam`es, un commandant ´egyptien, et A¨ıda, une jeune princesse, ´gypte. Le esclave ´ethiopienne. La sc`ene se d´eroule au palais royal en E ´thiopie, et que les assi´ peuple ´egyptien croyait avoir envahi l’E eg´ es ou les vaincus ne se remettaient pas de l’´echec subi par leur arm´ee. Les condamn´es ou les bannis, les exil´es ou les expuls´ es, avaient la vie dure. ` comOn comptait plusieurs bless´es parmi eux. Radam`es est appel´e a ´thiopiens. En secret, il aime A¨ıda. Il est ´ecartel´e [torn] entre battre les E l’amour de sa bien-aim´ee et celui de sa m`ere patrie. Pourtant, Radam`es s’est engag´e avec Amneris, la fille du pharaon. Il compte la prendre pour ´epouse lorsqu’il sortira vainqueur de la guerre. Il ne sait pas que A¨ıda est de sang noble et que Amneris est amoureuse de lui. A¨ıda sent
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son cœur se d´echirer. Son bien-aim´e va faire la guerre contre le peuple ´ethiopien, compos´e de desh´erit´es, command´e par son p`ere. Radam`es a rec¸u l’´ep´ee sacr´ee qui le conduira au triomphe. Amneris se pr´epare ` fˆeter son retour victorieux. Elle fait croire a ` A¨ıda que Radam`es a ´et´e a tu´e et exige que son esclave assiste au retour triomphal des arm´ees pour afficher la diff´erence de leur rang social. Cette histoire tourne au tragique. Nous avons savour´e tous les d´etails po´etiques du spectacle, au clair de lune, en profitant au maximum de ce moment extraordinaire ` chaque fois que l’on assiste a ` des repr´esentations d’euphorie g´en´erale. A d’op´era, on red´ecouvre en grandeur nature [full-life scale] la mise en sc`ene somptueuse dans une ambiance envoˆ utante [spell-binding]. La mise en valeur des costumes chatoyants [sparkling] nous impr`egne [fill] de ce spectacle vivant dans la chaleur douce d’une nuit d’´et´e.
The past participle used as a noun is a very common and vigorous practice, not only in French but also in Spanish and Italian. English has few equivalents to this phenomenon. The English equivalent is frequently higher in register (e.g., the accused). A further word or words like person or persons are almost always involved. Translation of such nouns deriving from past participles is often very difficult and even cumbersome, and the sentence often has to be reordered. Two strategies offer themselves: either a general statement (abandonn´es > the people who have been abandoned) or, for example, a demonstrative pronoun (les initi´es > those initiated). A few words correspond to an English word: le d´etenu (the detainee), d´el´egu´e (the delegate), accus´e (the accused). The nouns in many of these cases are frequently found in the plural, and in certain cases a singular past-participle noun is almost inconceivable (les assi´eg´es, les encercl´es, les rassembl´es, les r´eunis). In addition to which, some singular nouns sound a little odd (l’extermin´e, l’inscrit, l’enregistr´e), as opposed to their plural form. Of course, there is no reason why the feminine form in many cases should not be used as well. The singular form is given in the first list below, which is followed by a second more random list. The first list shows very clearly how a great number of verbs and their past participles lend themselves to the creation of nouns in this way, in addition to which it is surprising that English grammars of the French language do not pay attention to them, which in turn means that English speakers fail to use them in any meaningful and resourceful way. Again, this compilation would not be found in a French grammar for French speakers since, being a simple part of the language, most French speakers are not aware of this feature. It comes naturally to them. The list contains translations for all the nouns, as well as examples. In some cases, the past participles used in this way may have a negative meaning since the past participle can entail a passive idea which, in turn, can point to a person subject to an unpleasant or painful experience:
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abandonn´e abonn´e abruti accident´e accouch´ee accus´e administr´e admis affranchi
agr´eg´e agress´e aim´e, bien/ mal ali´en´e amput´e
angoiss´e appel´e assi´eg´es assist´e assur´e attach´e
banni bless´e brˆ ul´e condamn´e (` a mort)
` la suite de l’invasion, les person who has been abandoned: A ` la belle ´etoile. abandonn´es se virent oblig´es de coucher a ` tous les abonn´es. subscriber: Le catalogue est envoy´e a idiot, moron: R´emy conduit comme un abruti. injured person: Cette accident´ee a ´et´e indemnis´ee. woman who has just given birth. the accused: le banc des accus´es. constituent: Les administr´es votent ici toujours au centre. successful candidate in an examination: Les admis trouvent toujours du travail. emancipated person (usually from slavery, but not always): Il y avait des cas d’affranchis aux ´ Etats-Unis qui voulaient garder leur statut d’esclaves; Les femmes ne jouissaient pas du statut d’affranchie au dix-neuvi`eme si`ecle. person who has the agr´egation (highest competitive exam in education in France). person attacked/mugged: L’agress´e a port´e plainte en cour d’assises. well-loved person/disliked person: sa bien-aim´ee lui a offert un cadeau. insane person: Henri a ´et´e enferm´e dans un asile d’ali´en´es. amputee: En tant que m´edecin, Georges Duhamel d´ecrit le drame des amput´es dans ses Souvenirs de la Grande Guerre. tormented/anxious person: Il ne faut pas lui faire attention, Franc¸oise est une angoiss´ee perp´etuelle. military conscript: Les appel´es ont peu de formation militaire. besieged citizens: Les assi´eg´es de Massada se sont suicid´es plutˆot que de se rendre a ` l’arm´ee romaine. person on social benefit: La famille a une mentalit´e d’assist´es. insured person: Les non assur´es affrontent de gros probl`emes financiers lors des inondations. ` la coop´eration attach´e: Audrey est une attach´ee a universitaire; un attach´e commercial/culturel; un attach´e de presse a banished person: Victor Hugo fut un des grands bannis du dix-neuvi`eme si`ecle. injured person: L’accident a produit plusieurs bless´es. ` la suite de l’accident, il y avait de nombreux burns victim: A brˆ ul´es. condemned person: Le condamn´e a ´et´e graci´e par le pr´esident.
Past participles as nouns
convaincu converti convi´e convoqu´e couronn´e crucifi´e
d´ebauch´e d´ec´ed´e d´echu d´ecor´e d´efavoris´e d´elaiss´e d´el´egu´e d´eport´e d´eposs´ed´e d´eprav´e d´esax´e d´es´equilibr´e d´esesp´er´e d´esh´erit´e
destitu´e d´etach´e d´etenu diplˆ om´e
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convinced person: Apr`es le discours, il y eu des quantit´es de convaincus. convert: Tu prˆeches un converti (You are preaching to the converted). guest: Les convi´es ont cordialement remerci´e l’amphytrion (host). person called (for a purpose): Les convoqu´es ont tous parl´e en faveur d’une hausse de salaire. crowned person: Le couronn´e a daign´e recevoir ses sujets. crucified person: Des crucifi´es jalonnaient souvent La Voie ` Brindisi, y compris Spartacus; le Appienne de Rome a crucifi´e = Christ. debauchee: Verlaine mena une vie de d´ebauch´e. deceased person: Le d´ec´ed´e n’a malheureusement pas laiss´e de testament. fallen person (used metaphorically): Les d´echus pourront-ils h´eriter du royaume de Dieu ? decorated person: les d´ecor´es de la Grande Guerre. ` ill-favored person: Les d´efavoris´es ont toujours du mal a monter dans l’´echelle sociale. abandoned person: Les d´elaiss´es de notre soci´et´e succombent ` la tentation d’actes criminels. souvent a ` Gen`eve. delegate: Tous les d´el´egu´es se r´eunirent a deported person: Les d´eport´es ne pouvaient jamais deviner leur sort; En France il y a des quantit´es de Rue des d´eport´es. dispossessed person: On a pu loger tous les d´eposs´ed´es (i.e., those who have lost their homes). depraved person: La famille a ´et´e brutalement agress´ee par des d´eprav´es. ` la maison. unbalanced person: Un d´esax´e a dˆ u mettre le feu a unbalanced person: Un carambolage d’automobiles a ´et´e provoqu´e par une d´es´equilibr´ee. desperate person: La d´esesp´er´ee s’est suicid´ee. underprivileged/deprived person: Qu’est-ce que j’admire ` d´efendre les Guillaume, il consacre tout son temps a int´erˆets des d´esh´erit´es de la vie. dismissed person: De tous les destitu´es, un seul officier a repris son commandement. seconded person: Le d´etach´e a regagn´e la France au bout de deux ans. detainee: Trois des d´etenues ont ´et´e relˆ ach´ees. person with a degree/diploma, graduate: C’est une diplˆom´ee d’une grande ´ecole.
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disparu divorc´e dou´e drogu´e ´egar´e ´elu
encercl´es
enrag´e envoy´e
´evad´e exalt´e exclu excommuni´e exil´e expatri´e
expuls´e extermin´e fianc´e grad´e habitu´e handicap´e illumin´e
person who has disappeared: Il y avait combien de disparus apr`es l’avalanche ? divorcee: Le nombre de divorc´es va toujours en augmentant. clever/talented person: Elle est l’une des plus dou´ees de la classe. drug addict: La soci´et´e doit prendre en charge le traitement des drogu´es. person who has gone astray: Il a fallu plusieurs heures pour localiser les ´egar´es. chosen/elected person: Selon certains fanatiques, il y a tr`es peu d’´elus pour le royaume des cieux; Les ´elus vont directement au s´enat. people who are encircled: Beaucoup des encercl´es dans la poche de Falaise se sont rendus (incident in the Normandy landings); les encercl´es allemands durant la bataille de Stalingrad. ` tous les matchs. C’est un enrag´e du foot. fanatic: Il va a correspondent, envoy: C’est un envoy´e sp´ecial du Monde; L’envoy´ee am´ericaine accepta le plan de paix : Vous ˆetes l’envoy´e du ciel ! (You’ve come just in time!). escaped prisoner: Il ´etait impossible de capturer l’´evad´e. fanatic: Cet attentat est le fait de quelques exalt´es. drop-out, outcast: Que faire pour les exclus s’ils ne veulent pas que l’on les aide ?; les exclus de la croissance / du syst`eme. Kepler fut un des grands excommuni´es du dix-septi`eme si`ecle. exiled person: Trotsky fut un des grands exil´es du vingti`eme si`ecle. expatriate: Des expatri´es espagnols pass`erent une ` la suite de la guerre quarantaine d’ann´ees en France a civile en Espagne. an expelled person: En football, un expuls´e n’a pas le droit de jouer les trois matchs suivants. people who have been exterminated: Comment calculer le nombre d’extermin´es dans les camps de concentration ? from: (se) fiancer, as in les deux fianc´es; Les fianc´es (Italian novel by Manzoni = I promessi sposi). non-commissioned officer: Un grad´e est moins important qu’un officier. regular visitor/customer, habitu´e: les habitu´es de ce caf´e se r´eunissent tous les samedi soirs. disabled person: Il faut c´eder la place aux handicap´es. visionary, crank: Raspoutine, illumin´e sous le r`egne de Nicholas II, fut assassin´e par le prince Iuossoupov.
Past participles as nouns
inconnu inculp´e in´edit initi´e inscrit insoumis
insurg´e int´eress´e intern´e
interview´e intoxiqu´e
invit´e laiss´e-pourcompte licenci´e log´e marginalis´e mari´e/mari´ee martyris´e miracul´e mort mutil´e
nanti
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stranger: J’ai crois´e un inconnu dans la rue (no infinitive). (the) accused: le drame d’un inculp´e innocent hitherto unpublished book/article: un in´edit de Mauriac (no infinitive). initiated person: une po´esie ´esot´erique, faite pour les initi´es; un d´elit d’initi´es (insider trading). registered student/voter: Les inscrits ont d´epos´e leur bulletin de vote dans l’urne. draft dodger, rebel: Les insoumis risquaient l’ex´ecution pendant la premi`ere guerre mondiale; une classe d’insoumises (no infinitive). insurgent: Les insurg´es se sont r´evolt´es contre le pouvoir central; Tu as lu le roman L’insurg´e de J. Vall`es ? interested person: Le comit´e a pris la d´ecision sans consulter les int´er´ess´es. interned person as a mentally ill patient in a hospital; also a political internee as in Guant´ anamo Bay or the V´elodrome d’Hiver (V´el’ d’Hiv) in Paris during World War II: les intern´es du V´el’ d’Hiv. interviewee: Apr`es l’´ev`enement, l’interview´e a d´esign´e le coupable. person suffering from food poisoning; L’hˆopital a d´ecouvert que les intoxiqu´es avaient mang´e des champignons v´en´eneux. guest: Les invit´es partirent tard dans la nuit. outcast: Les squatters ne sont que des laiss´es-pour-compte. college graduate, person made redundant: des licenci´es en droit; une licenci´ee de sciences; un licenci´e `es-sciences. a person given accommodation: Les log´es en ville paient plus cher. ` un certain dropout: On les appelait “clochards” ou “clodos” a moment mais maintenant on les appelle “marginalis´es”. bridegroom/bride: La mari´ee ´etait d’une beaut´e ´eclatante. tortured, battered, martyred: Comment compenser les martyris´es des camps de concentration ? person who has made a miraculous recovery: Est-ce qu’il y a ` Lourdes ? (no infinitive). vraiment des miracul´es a dead person: L’accident produisit quatre morts. disabled person: Dans Les Souvenirs de la Grande Guerre, Duhamel d´ecrit le drame des grands mutil´es; un mutil´e de guerre; Office national des mutil´es et des r´eform´es (the) well-off: Ce quartier est r´eserv´e aux nantis.
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naufrag´e
n´evros´e nomin´e noy´e obs´ed´e oubli´e passionn´e
pendu pers´ecut´e perverti pestif´er´e
polycopi´e poss´ed´e privil´egi´e proscrit rapatri´e rassembl´es reclus r´eform´e
shipwrecked person: Le navire a d´ecouvert une cinquantaine de naufrag´es r´efugi´es sur un radeau (no infinitive); Delacroix peint avec un r´ealisme d´echirant le visage tourment´e des naufrag´es dans son Radeau de la M´eduse. neurotic person: On peut gu´erir plus facilement bien des maladies que les n´evros´es (no infinitive). nominated person (e.g., for an Oscar): Tous les nomin´es ´etaient pr´esents a ` la c´er´emonie de remise de prix. drowned person: Le raz-de-mar´ee a produit plusieurs noy´es. obsessed person, fanatic: Le crime a ´et´e sˆ urement commis par un obs´ed´e sexuel. those who are ignored by society: les oubli´es de la soci´et´e. enthusiast: Mozart et Beethoven ? Elle les adore, c’est une vraie passionn´ee; Norman Mailer fut un passionn´e de boxe, Camus un passionn´e de football. person who has just been hanged, as in C´ezanne’s La maison du pendu or Villon’s La ballade des pendus. persecuted person: L’histoire nous montre combien ont souffert les pers´ecut´es de notre soci´et´e. pervert: un perverti sexuel. plague-ridden/stricken person: Il n’est pas surprenant que ` d’innombrables Camus emploie le mot “pestif´er´es” a reprises dans La peste; Tu as vu le tableau Les Pestif´er´es de Jaffa (1804) de Antoine Gros ? sheet distributed to students, handout: Tous les ´etudiants ` un polycopi´e. ont droit a (one) possessed: Elle hurlait comme une poss´ed´ee; Je viens de terminer Les poss´ed´es de Dosto¨ıevski. privileged person: Je ne faisais pas partie des quelques privil´egi´es qui ont pu assister au concert. banned person, outlaw: Les proscrits pouvaient rarement rentrer au pays. repatriated person: La mort de Franco a vu le retour en Espagne de milliers de rapatri´es. people gathered together: Les rassembl´es vot`erent la s´ecession. recluse: Il ne sort plus, il vit en reclus, en ermite (no infinitive). discharged soldier, person who has been declared unfit for military service: Les r´eform´es ont toujours la priorit´e. It is also used of members of the Protestant Church ´glise r´eform´ee = les r´eform´es). R´eform´e in these (E contexts is less well known these days.
Past participles as nouns
refoul´e
r´efugi´e r´ehabilit´e
repris (de justice) rescap´e
retrait´e
r´eunis r´evolt´e salari´e s´equestr´e
sinistr´e
sond´e supplici´e surdou´e tar´e ` part tir´e a tortur´e tourment´e traumatis´e tu´e
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sexually/psychologically repressed person; someone who has been forced/turned back: Selon certains psychiatres, nous ` la sommes tous des refoul´es et des hypocrites; Les refoul´es a fronti`ere se sont trouv´es sans abri. refugee: D´esolation de d´esolation, les r´efugi´es n’avaient ni eau, ni nourriture, ni abri. rehabilitated/redeemed person: Dreyfus, victime d’un anti-s´emitisme end´emique, fut l’un des grands r´ehabilit´es du vingti`eme si`ecle. hardened criminal: Rue de Rivoli, on avait arrˆet´e un dangereux repris de justice. survivor: les rescap´es d’un naufrage / d’un incendie; Il restait peu de rescap´es de Buchenwald pour raconter leur histoire (the infinitive does not exist). senior citizen, pensioner: Le retrait´e touche une pension priv´ee ainsi qu’une pension de l’´etat (the infinitive does not exist). those assembled: Les r´eunis ont salu´e le vainqueur. rebel: Spartacus est l’un des grands r´evolt´es de l’histoire. wage earner, salaried employee: Certains salari´es ont fait ` la gr`eve (the infinitive does not exist). appel a kidnapped person: La police a finalement d´ecouvert la s´equestr´ee; Les s´equestr´es d’Altona est une pi`ece de Sartre. disaster victim: Les malheureux sinistr´es attendaient avec patience sur les d´ecombres de leur maison (no infinitive). person who is polled: 60 pour cent des sond´es ont enregistr´e leur m´econtentement. torture victim: Tosca entendait son amant, le supplici´e Cavaradossi, hurler de douleur. exceptionally gifted person: Chopin ´etait un surdou´e du piano (no infinitive). mental defective: Le nazisme a essay´e d’´eliminer tous les tar´es. ` part de off-print (of an article): Je t’enverrai un tir´e a l’article. victim of torture: Sartre a protest´e au nom des tortur´es. tormented person: Malraux ´etait un des grands tourment´es du vingti`eme si`ecle. ` la suite de l’accident, les person suffering from shock: A ` l’hˆopital. secouristes ont transport´e tous les traumatis´es a person who has been killed: Apr`es l’´echauffour´ee, il a fallu enterrer les tu´es tout de suite.
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vaincu v´ecu
defeated person: Elle a adopt´e une attitude de vaincue; Malheur aux vaincus ! personal experience: C’est du v´ecu (It’s real life: said of a novel or a film); le v´ecu quotidien (daily experience)
There are other participles which are treated in dictionaries as nouns as well, but they need a support, as the French would say. Venu is one such past participle. Les venus has no meaning in isolation, but les premiers/nouveaux venus and les premi`eres/nouvelles venues do have a meaning. Similarly, one would say and write le premier arriv´e / la premi`ere arriv´ee / les premiers arriv´es / les premi`eres arriv´ees, le premier servi / la premi`ere servie / les premiers servis / les premi`eres servies, le premier sorti / la premi`ere sortie / les premiers sortis / les premi`eres sorties. Parti would function in the same way and dernier could replace premier in all these cases. A biblical reference, bringing together two entries above, may be aptly used here: “Car il y a beaucoup d’appel´es et peu d’´elus” (“Many are called, few are chosen,” Matthew 22: 16). Simply to show how extensive this construction is, there now follows a further random list with no translations or examples. Again, most of these past participles / nouns would appear more easily in the plural, but quite a few (e.g., d´eg´en´er´e = degenerate person, gaz´e = gas victim, pistonn´e = someone for whom strings are pulled) occur just as easily in the singular. The following past participles / nouns are listed in the singular, except where logic or usage would require a plural. A few past participles could appear somewhat odd as nouns but there is no reason why, in a given context, they should not be used: affect´e; affol´e; attabl´es; autoris´e; branch´e; chˆ ati´e; compens´e; concern´e; d´eg´en´er´e; d´emobilis´e; d´esempar´e; mobilis´e; encadr´e; engag´e; enrag´e; enregistr´e; favoris´e; gu´eri; indemnis´e; interpell´e; interrog´e; promu; prot´eg´e; puni; recommand´e; rejet´e; rel´egu´e; sacrifi´e; touch´e; transport´e. Although grammatically acceptable, usage would be against the exclusive use of some past participles / nouns, and personne, for instance would precede them: une personne caricatur´ee/´evolu´ee/hypnotis´ee/photographi´ee/ politis´ee/trahie/traqu´ee/viol´ee. Francis Carco’s L’homme traqu´e is a good case in point here. A humorous use of allong´e is often heard: le boulevard des allong´es = le cimeti`ere. The use of refus´e in a particular context is most worthy of note. Traditional, bourgeois moral values in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries required certain paintings treating unorthodox and, at that time, scandalous subjects to be consigned to the Salon des Refus´es at the Boulevard des Capucines, in Paris. One such “notorious” painting was Monet’s Le d´ejeuner sur l’herbe, portraying a naked woman sitting alongside two perfectly and elegantly attired men. Two other nouns deriving from past participles merit mention. They occur in the feminine form and, as with the nouns above, they resist easy
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translations. The two nouns in question are mise and prise, which are followed by a preposition and then a noun. They are both feminine. Mise suggests the idea of “placing” or “putting.” No translations are given here since, generally speaking, the examples are clear enough: mise en branle, mise en circulation, mise en ´etat, mise en garde, mise en jeu, mise en libert´e, mise en marche, mise en mouvement, mise en orbite (also sur, see below), mise en ordre, mise en place, mise en pratique, mise en sc`ene, mise en service, mise en valeur, mise ` jour. en vente, mise en vigueur, mise sur pied, mise sur orbite, mise a Prise suggests the idea of “taking” or “assuming”: prise en charge, prise d’armes, prise d’assaut, prise de bec, prise de conscience, prise de contact, prise de contrˆole, prise de d´ecision, prise de fonctions, prise de position, prise de possession, prise de pouvoir, prise de sang, prise de son. Mise and prise give rise to remise and reprise, as in remise en question / en ˆtre, a ` plusieurs reprises (several valeur, reprise d’une activit´e / d’une pi`ece de th´ea times). Titles of books, novels, plays and so on sometimes involve past participles as nouns. Two are referred to above: Les s´equestr´es d’Altona (play by Sartre), Les mal aim´es (Mauriac), Les poss´ed´es (translation of the title of Dostoievksy’s novel = The Devils). Camus’s La peste was originally entitled Les s´epar´es.
17 Ablative absolute (absolute use of the past participle) / L’ablatif absolu (usage absolu du participe pass´e) The following passage provides a simple description of the delights of the Tuscany region in central Italy. It recounts a visit made by tourists to the various attractions in the main towns before they arrive at their hotel where their driver appears to have mislaid the list of the group. Uses of the ablative absolute are highlighted in bold. Some translations are given. Les splendeurs de la Toscane Les vacances commenc´ees, nous avons pris les routes qui sillonnent [go through] la Toscane. Tout compte fait, nous ´etions sous le charme et la douceur de cette r´egion d’une beaut´e fascinante. La luminosit´e naturelle, les couleurs chaudes de la pierre rouge, jaune et ocre des monuments historiques, nous font voyager dans le temps et dans l’espace ˆ ge et de la Renaissance, entre autres. ` travers les cultures du Moyen A a Le soir venu, la campagne ´etait de toute beaut´e. Avec leur v´eg´etation luxuriante, les champs ´etalaient g´en´ereusement leurs vignobles et leurs oliveraies [olive groves]. Tout bien consid´er´e, nous avons d´ecid´e de visiter Florence, Sienne, San Gimignano. Florence, ville d’art, offre de superbes panoramas sur la ville. Le Piazzale Michelangelo est une figure embl´ematique [iconic] de la ville. La cath´edrale, le baptist`ere et bien d’autres ´edifices religieux ´evoquent un pass´e charg´e d’histoire. Sienne est une magnifique petite ville avec sa fameuse Piazza del Campo, la basilique San Domenico et la chapelle de Sainte Catherine de Sienne. Les tours carr´ees dominent le village m´edi´eval de San Gimignano. La casquette enfonc´ee jusqu’aux oreilles, le chauffeur nous attendait tranquillement en faisant la sieste jusqu’` a notre retour. Une fois nos ` visites termin´ees, nous avons repris le chemin du retour en autocar. A l’hˆ otel, une hˆ otesse nous accueille avec un sourire radieux et beaucoup de gentillesses. Elle remet des cadeaux aux touristes pour fˆeter leur arriv´ee. Les pr´esents remis aux touristes, l’agent d’accueil est reparti vers son bureau r´ecup´erer les cl´es des chambres. Les cl´ es des chambres r´ecup´er´ees, l’hˆ otesse nous les distribue. Elle demande au chauffeur de lui remettre la liste du groupe mais, les mains plong´ ees dans les poches, il la recherche sans succ`es.
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L’hˆ otel, situ´e en plein cœur de la vieille ville, a ´et´e r´enov´e. Une fois l’hˆ otel r´enov´e, les propri´etaires du lieu l’ouvrirent au public. Une fois fortune faite, les hˆ oteliers s’arrˆeteront de travailler. Le travail fini, ils appr´ecieront les balades de gens heureux qui coulent des jours tranquilles dans cette belle Toscane.
The ablative absolute is as uncommon a structure in English as it is common in French. It is not uncommon in Spanish or Italian. It derives from the Latin construction formed by a past participle as the nucleus which has no necessary grammatical connection with the main clause, so that it is really an independent subordinate clause of circumstance. It usually contains a temporal sense of something that has already happened. The ablative absolute is normally made up of any transitive verb and an accompanying noun. The English equivalent would be “When . . . ” or “As soon as . . . ” The ablative absolute is particularly prevalent in the written style and would therefore be classed as R3, although there are exceptions with une fois, indicated in the examples below. When the structure involves a noun, the latter usually, but not always, follows the past participle which agrees with it. The main clause is separated from the noun by a comma: Les vacances termin´ees, on a repris les cours. Le paquet remis, elle est repartie. Sitˆ ot arriv´ees les lettres, tout le monde voulait les lire. Sitˆ ot les ´ epreuves corrig´ees, je les ` la maison d’´edition. renvoyai a La messe finie, ils sont tous sortis. La maison vendue, ils repartirent pour l’´etranger. La double maison achev´ee (l’une pour son [Solj´enitsyne] travail, l’autre pour sa famille), il se ` l’œuvre (Lib´eration). met a Ses cong´en`eres, toutes ´etiquettes confondues, sont les meilleurs des Am´ericains (Lib´eration). ` peine Jean retir´e de l’affaire, A ` chercher son fr`ere commenc¸a a de nouveaux fonds.
As soon as the vacation was over, the classes began again. As soon as she handed in the package, she left. As soon as the letters had arrived, everyone wanted to read them. As soon as I had corrected the proofs, I sent them back to the publishers. As soon as mass was over, they all went out. When the house was sold, they set off again abroad. The combined house(s) completed (one for his [Solzhenitsyn’s] work, the other for his family), he gets down to work. His fellow creatures, forgetting all labels, are the best of Americans. Hardly had Jean withdrawn from the business than his brother began to look for new funds.
There are occasions where a demonstrative pronoun rather than a noun is involved, and here the register is unquestionably R3. Two examples are taken from the French historian E. Pr´eclin:
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C’est qu’il (Lincoln) voulait ´tat-pivot de m´enager l’E Virginie. Celui ralli´e au Sud, le Pr´esident fit renforcer le fort Sumter (1937, p. 136). Aux yeux de Lincoln et de ses amis, c’est [. . .] que le Nord avait fait la guerre. Celle-ci ´tats du Sud finie, les E redevenaient en fait. . . (1937, p. 154)
The fact is that he wanted to spare the pivot state of Virginia. Once the latter had rallied to the Southern cause, the President had fort Sumter reinforced. In the eyes of Lincoln and his friends, it was [. . .] that the North had waged war. Once the latter had ended, the Southern States became once again in fact. . .
The ablative absolute can involve the elliptical use of une fois with a past participle: Une fois rassur´ees, nous pourrons partir. Il reviendra, une fois fortune faite.
Once we are reassured, we can leave. He’ll come back once he’s made his fortune.
If the noun is accompanied by a determiner, the word order can vary considerably: Une fois la paix sign´ee, les deux pays ont repris des relations normales. La paix une fois sign´ee, les deux pays. . . Une fois sign´ee la paix, les deux pays. . .
Once they had signed the peace treaty, the two countries resumed normal relations. Idem Idem
Probably the most common instance of this construction is heard by a caller on the answerphone: Une fois l’enregistrement termin´e, vous pouvez raccrocher. The past participle can be left understood, and here the construction is R2. The construction often involves une fois and a preposition: Une fois dans la maison, on peut pr´eparer un repas. Une fois sur le toit, tu verras les d´egˆ ats. ` la ferme, on peut Une fois a ` manger aux animaux. donner a
Once inside, we can get a meal ready. Once on the roof, you’ll see the damage. Once at the farm, we can feed the animals.
Although the ablative absolute is often related to time, it can be connected to manner:
Ablative absolute
Le b´eret enfonc´e jusqu’aux oreilles, il se promenait dans le bois. Les mains plong´ees dans les poches, elle errait pr`es de la rivi`ere. Les bras enfouis dans les poches de son manteau, il avait l’air vraiment triste.
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With his beret stuffed down to his ears, he was wandering in the wood. Her hands deep in her pockets, she wandered near the river. With his arms stuffed right into the pockets of his overcoat, he looked really sad.
It may also be conditional: Les cheveux coup´es ras, tu nagerais plus vite.
If your hair were cut really short, you’d swim faster.
The ablative absolute provides a number of common set phrases: (Toute) r´eflexion faite, il vaut mieux. . . Toutes choses consid´er´ees, on pourra. . . Tout bien consid´er´e, il convient de. . . Tout compte fait, on reste ici. Cela dit, elle est repartie.
On reflection, it is better to. . . All things considered, we could. . . All things well considered, it is wise to. . . Taking everything into account, we’ll stay here. Having said that, she left.
The ablative absolute can also be used with a present participle: Les sommes d’argent ´ etant perc¸ues, Papa a pu acheter la voiture. Son travail ´ etant termin´e, elle regagna l’hˆ otel.
Once he received the sums of money, Pop was able to buy the automobile. Her work over, she returned to the hotel.
It can be used in conjunction with some intransitive verbs: Le soir venu, les invit´es arrivaient en masse. Papa parti avec Maman, on a regard´e un DVD sur l’Argentine. Je l’ai appris par personne interpos´ee. Le soir venu, on fit une partie de cano¨e. La gloire venue, Marie Curie ` travailler comme continua a une forcen´ee.
When the evening came, the guests poured in. When Pop and Mom had gone out, we watched a DVD on Argentina. I learned of it through someone else. When evening had come, we did some canoeing. With the advent of glory, Marie Curie continued to work ferociously.
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If the past participle precedes the noun, no agreement is necessary: approuv´e, attendu, certifi´e, ci-annex´e, ci-inclus, ci-joint, compris, y compris, non ` part, ˆot´e, ou¨ı, pass´e, quitt´e, compris, entendu, ´etant donn´e, except´e, fourni, mis a suppos´e, vu; Fini les pourparlers, le gouvernement a regagn´e la capitale. In a general way, the ablative absolute is very common in the written form, especially in prose and novel writing, witness a range of illustrations taken from Ir`ene N´emirovsky’s Suite franc¸aise (2004): Aussitˆ ot sortie, elle an´e un peu; Jeanne partie, je commenc¸ai regagna la ferme; Le d´ejeuner fini, on a flˆ ` faire le m´enage; Le premier d´etachement pass´e, un grad´e s’avanc¸a a a ` cheval; les meubles du grand salon enlev´es, les rideaux d´ecroch´es, les provisions entass´ees dans la cabane (here there are three); Les gens, le premier instant de terreur pass´e, auraient retrouv´e quelque calme; Florence s’´etait retir´ee chez elle, et sa porte ` la porte, verrouill´ee, elle se regardait avec consternation dans la glace; arriv´ee a elle se retourna.
18 Verb + infinitive when verb + that + subordinate clause is used in English / Verbe + infinitif lorsqu’un verbe + that + proposition subordonn´ee s’emploie en anglais The passage below, taken from Le Monde of Saturday June 27, 2009, illustrates how common the verb + infinitive construction really is. The construction is highlighted. Plus du tiers des ´etudiants affirment avoir des difficult´ es ` g´erer leur stress a Quelque 94,8% des ´etudiants assurent ˆetre en bonne ou assez bonne sant´e, selon une enquˆete rendue publique le 22 juin par l’Union nationale des soci´et´es ´etudiantes mutualistes r´egionales (USEM). Toute` g´erer leur stress, 22,6% fois, 34,5% d´eclarent avoir des difficult´es a ont des probl`emes de sommeil et 8,5% admettent avoir eu des pens´ees suicidaires au cours de l’ann´ee ´ecoul´ee. Quelque 11,2% des ´etudiants d´eclarent avoir une vision n´egative de l’avenir. Par ailleurs, 45,2% estiment ne pas avoir ´et´e suffisament inform´ es sur leur choix d’orientation. 12,5% d´eclarent avoir une consommation excessive d’alcool. Le pourcentage d’´etudiants ayant consult´e un professionnel de ` 80,5% sant´e au cours des six derniers mois est pass´e de 83,6% en 2007 a en 2009. Un quart des ´etudiants estiment ˆetre peu ou mal inform´ es sur les compl´ementaires sant´e [supplementary health details]. Le taux de ` 25%. non-adh´esion est pass´e, entre 2007 et 2009, de 15,3% a
In a written and elegant style (R3), and this is extremely common, a verb, particularly related to the imagination or intellectual judgment, is followed by an infinitive or a perfect infinitive when the subjects are identical. When the direct complement (i.e., the infinitive or perfect infinitive) is replaced by que = that and a subordinate clause, the register is standard R2 and is more associated with the spoken language, although this construction would not be out of place in writing. However, as a general rule, it would be safe to assert that there is a clear distinction between the registers: verb + infinitive / perfect infinitive = R2/3; verb + que + subordinate clause = R2. 229
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Below is a list of verbs which function in these two ways:
admettre affirmer ajouter
annoncer assurer
avouer confirmer croire
d´eclarer
d´ementir dire esp´erer ignorer s’imaginer
jurer nier
R2
R2/3
Vous admettez donc que vous ´etiez toujours l` ` minuit ? aa Le t´emoin a affirm´e qu’elle avait vu l’agresseur. Le s´enateur a ajout´e qu’il avait le sentiment que les ´elections seraient report´ees ` une date ult´erieure. a ´l´eonore a annonc´e qu’elle E ´etait enceinte. Je les ai assur´es que je n’avais pas ´et´e t´emoin de l’accident. Lucile avoue qu’elle n’avait pas vu la voiture. Les jeunes ont confirm´e qu’ils ´etaient rentr´es tr`es tard. Les victimes croyaient qu’elles allaient mourir; Adeline croyait qu’elle pourrait nous aider. Jeanne d´eclara qu’elle n’avait accept´e aucun compromis; Robin a d´eclar´e qu’il pouvait assister au jugement. Mon fils d´ement qu’il a/ait dit cela. Julie a dit qu’elle s’´etait amus´ee toute l’apr`es-midi. Sophie esp`ere qu’elle a r´eussi le portrait de sa m`ere. Franc¸oise ignorait qu’elle avait commis une erreur. Dans un rˆeve, je m’imaginais que je volais comme un oiseau. Laetitia a jur´e qu’elle avait rencontr´e l’accus´e la veille. La femme a ni´e qu’elle ´etait la m`ere de la petite.
Vous admettez donc avoir ´et´e ` minuit ? toujours l` aa Le t´emoin a affirm´e avoir vu l’agresseur. Le s´enateur a ajout´e avoir le sentiment que les ´elections ` une seraient report´ees a date ult´erieure. ´l´eonore a annonc´e ˆetre E enceinte. Je les ai assur´es ne pas avoir ´et´e t´emoin de l’accident. Lucile avoue n’avoir pas vu la voiture. Les jeunes ont confirm´e ˆetre rentr´es tr`es tard. Les victimes croyaient mourir; Adeline croyait pouvoir nous aider. Jeanne d´eclara n’avoir accept´e aucun compromis; Robin a d´eclar´e pouvoir assister au jugement. Mon fils d´ement avoir dit cela. Julie a dit s’ˆetre amus´ee toute l’apr`es-midi. Sophie esp`ere avoir r´eussi le portrait de sa m`ere. Franc¸oise ignorait avoir commis une erreur. Dans un rˆeve, je m’imaginais voler comme un oiseau. Laetitia a jur´e avoir rencontr´e l’accus´e la veille. La femme a ni´e ˆetre la m`ere de la petite.
Verb + infinitive when subordinate clause in English
penser
pr´etendre raconter
se rappeler reconnaˆıtre
regretter
rˆever se souvenir
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R2
R2/3
Diane pense qu’elle pourra jouer du piano ce soir; Mon p`ere ne pense pas qu’il peut/puisse acheter le livre; Je ne pense pas que j’´etais pr´esente. La fille ne pr´etend pas qu’elle avait rec¸u le ch`eque. L’auteur raconte qu’il avait ´et´e invit´e a ` une soir´ee avec Debussy. Annick se rappelle qu’elle a rencontr´e ma cousine. Marine reconnaˆıt qu’elle avait compose la po´esie pour son fr`ere. Louis regrette profond´ement qu’il ait conduit comme un fou. J’ai rˆev´e que j’´etais riche comme Cr´esus. Je me souviens que je l’ai dit.
Diane pense pouvoir jouer du piano ce soir; Mon p`ere ne pense pas pouvoir acheter le livre; Je ne pense pas avoir ´et´e pr´esente. La fille ne pr´etend pas avoir rec¸u le ch`eque. L’auteur raconte avoir ´et´e ` une soir´ee avec invit´e a Debussy. Annick se rappelle avoir rencontr´e ma cousine. Marine reconnaˆıt avoir compos´e la po´esie pour son fr`ere. Louis regrette profond´ement d’avoir conduit comme un fou. J’ai rˆev´e ˆetre riche comme Cr´esus. Je me souviens de l’avoir dit.
However, there are circumstances, notably in elegant R3 language, where a following infinitive / perfect infinitive occurs when the subjects are not the same: Une actrice entra qui avait la figure et la voix qu’on m’avait dit ˆetre celles de Sarah Bernhard. Les pieuvres qu’on disait hanter les profondeurs de la mer . . . O` u sont les Franc¸ais que vous dites avoir ´et´e d´enonc´es par un agent double ? Il faisait ce qu’il estimait devoir eˆtre fait. Ces oiseaux que l’on reconnaissait eˆtre de vrais rapaces . . . J’ai entendu une voix que les deux cousins reconnurent pour ˆetre celle de ma sœur. Je ramenais la conversation sur des sujets que je savais l’int´eresser. J’introduisis dans le d´ebat des id´ees que je savais eˆtre vitales. J’ai vu de magnifiques flambeaux que l’on suppose avoir e´t´e achet´es par la duchesse. elle-mˆeme. L’h´ero¨ıne la croyait avoir perdu connaissance. Il jugeait cette r´ecr´eation lui devoir ˆetre profitable.
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There are many verbs followed by an infinitive which suggests a future idea: J’esp`ere (pouvoir) venir. Ir`ene promet d’emmener les enfants au parc. ´lisabeth pense venir ce soir. E Yves croit pouvoir r´egler l’affaire dans quelques jours. For numerous other uses of the infinitive, see Chapter 12.
19 Pluperfect tense / Le plus-que-parfait
The passage below relates a visit made by a group of young students to a well-known chˆ ateau at Grignan in Provence, southern France. This chˆ ateau was made famous by one of its seventeenth-century inhabitants, Mme de S´evign´e, whose Lettres set down for posterity the customs, judgments and opinions of her period. Note that Provence is not to be confused with province. Provence was an old French province, among many others like Alsace, Bretagne, Limousin and Normandie. Most of this passage is narrated in the pluperfect tense, highlighted whenever it occurs. The first two sentences, however, contain a preterit (rentra) and an imperfect (gardait), referring to what follows. The pluperfect tense, referring to what precedes, is found in both active and passive voices (avions parcouru, avait ´et´e construit), as well as in the reflexive (s’´etait lev´e). Une petite excursion au chˆ ateau de Grignan On rentra fatigu´es et tr`es contents des activit´es d’une chaude journ´ee au grand air. On gardait en m´emoire des vues imprenables, des champs immenses, des coquelicots rouge vif [bright red poppies], la v´eg´etation luxuriante et le chant des cigales [cicadas]. Nous avions parcouru l’Ard`eche et avions travers´ e le Rhˆ one pour explorer et visiter le chˆ ateau de Grignan situ´e dans la Drˆ ome provenc¸ale. Nous ´etions venus en groupe accompagn´e de notre professeur de ` peine franc¸ais. Notre groupe s’´etait lev´e pour descendre de l’autocar. A ´etions-nous arriv´es, nous avions r´ecup´ er´ e les billets pour notre visite ` des programmes de visites et a ` guid´ee. Notre professeur avait assist´e a ` ses des ateliers de lecture pour faire du rep´erage et pr´eparer le terrain a ´el`eves. ` proximit´e de la route des vins en Provence et de « l’Enclave Situ´e a des Papes », le chˆ ateau avait ´et´e construit sur un immense plateau qui surplombe la campagne environnante. Cette demeure avait ´ et´ e class´ ee monument historique. Nous avions franchi les portes du chˆ ateau pour d´ecouvrir les collections d’œuvres et d’objets d’art de cette demeure for` perte de vue, on apercevait de la terrasse la lavande se d´evelopper tifi´ee. A en abondance dans les terrains calcaires de la belle Provence. En ´et´e, les champs de lavande sem´ee en zigzag d´eployaient toute leur richesse,
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leur couleur vive et fraˆıche. Une senteur de parfum capiteux s’´elevait ˆge, des fleurs bleues en ´epi. Les jeunes garc¸ons et jeunes filles, de notre a ` travers les lettres de Mme de S´evign´e. La avaient d´ecouvert le chˆ ateau a marquise avait ´ecrit ses lettres qui avaient rem´ emor´ e la beaut´e fraˆıche et radieuse de la Provence. Nous nous ´ etions impr´ egn´ es des lieux et ` une ´epoque avions ´etudi´e la mani`ere de vivre, de penser propre a r´evolue o` u la vie de chˆ ateau avait ´et´e un lieu de plaisir, d’agr´ement ˆtrales, musicales et et de pouvoir. Les programmes des activit´es th´ea litt´eraires s’´etaient vus ´elaborer par des experts qui avaient su faire ` sa fille, revivre la correspondance que Mme de S´evign´e avait envoy´ ee a leurs ´echanges de lettres et leurs confidences. Cette petite excursion avait favoris´e la d´ecouverte de cette r´egion riche en vignobles et en oliviers. Le charme envoˆ utant avait op´ er´ e [had exerted its effect]. Ce parcours avait suscit´ e notre ´eveil et notre curiosit´e de jeunes adolescents. Le spectacle de la vie champˆetre ´etait un v´eritable enchantement.
The imperfect of avoir or ˆetre (see Chapter 21 for the imperfect tense) with the past participle forms the pluperfect tense. The pluperfect represents an action, event or thought as not only past but occurring before another action, event or thought which is also in the past. Agreement in number and gender functions in exactly the same way as in the perfect tense (see Chapter 14 for the perfect tense). Suffice it therefore to offer here just three examples with respect to agreement: Il ´ etait d´ej` a parti quand je l’ai appel´e. Elle s’est rendu compte qu’on l’avait tromp´ee. Quand je leur ai t´el´ephon´e, ils ´ etaient d´ej` a sortis.
He had already left when I called him. She realized they had deceived her. When I phoned them they had already gone out.
There are a variety of usages with the pluperfect tense. Past tense (usually the perfect tense in speech and frequently the preterit / past definite in writing) plus pluperfect tense – usage here is the same as in English: Je lui ai dit / Je lui dis qu’il avait ´ ecrit la lettre / qu’elle ´ etait venue. La Poste a inform´e C´eline que quelqu’un avait d´ej` a envoy´e le colis.
I told her that he had written the letter / that she had come. The Post Office informed C´eline that someone had already sent the parcel.
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Pluperfect tense plus perfect/preterit tense (the reverse of the above): ` peine ´etait-elle arriv´ee qu’on A l’a rappel´ee / qu’on la rappela. Ils n’avaient pas encore d´ejeun´e quand je suis arriv´ee.
Hardly had she arrived when they called her back. They hadn’t had their lunch when I arrived.
Pluperfect tense and conditional (see Chapter 26 for the conditional): J’avais cru que la famille m’accueillerait. David les avait pr´evenus qu’il ne pourrait (pas) partir en vacances.
I had thought that the family would welcome me. David had warned them he couldn’t go on vacation.
Pluperfect tense and present tense: D`es cette ´epoque, j’avais compris qu’il ne faut pas trop demander.
From that time, I had understood that I mustn’t expect too much.
Pluperfect tense and a preposition + infinitive: St´ephanie ´ etait venue pour vous demander de nous accompagner. Tu sais tr`es bien que nous avions achet´e les billets afin d’aller au ˆtre ce soir. th´ea
St´ephanie had come to ask you to accompany us. You know very well that we had bought the tickets to go to the theater this evening.
In hypothetical clauses with the conjunction si, the pluperfect is used with the conditional in the past: Si j’avais su le r´esultat, je t’aurais offert un cadeau. Si tu avais ´et´e plus patiente, tu aurais gagn´e la partie.
If I had known the result, I would have given you a present. If you had been more patient, you would have won the game.
In R3 literary style, the pluperfect subjunctive is still used. It is argued that such a feature is archaic, but many contemporary authors still have recourse to it in the third-person singular, and noticeably in the construction si in conjunction with comme: “Sa main quitta son veston, s’accrocha au revers de celui du pasteur, comme s’il eˆ ut voulu le secouer” (Malraux 1976a, p. 437); “Elle eut un mouvement de honte [ . . . ] comme si elle eˆ ut craint que ses voisins . . . ” (Green 1927, p. 248); “‘Plus j’y pense’, continua Marie Ladouet comme si elle n’eˆ ut rien remarqu´e . . . ” (Green 1927, p. 248).
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In speech, comme si is followed by the indicative of the pluperfect: Sabrina a pouss´e les hauts cris, comme si elle ´ etait devenue folle. ` courir R´emi s’est mis a rapidement, comme s’il avait ´ et´e entraˆın´e par le meilleur coach du monde.
Sabrina shouted out loud as if she had gone mad. R´emi began to run fast, as if he had been trained by the world’s best coach.
As with the last example above, the pluperfect is used in the passive: Louise n’avait jamais ´ et´e bless´ee, de sorte qu’elle ne savait pas ce que c’´etait qu’une intense douleur. Alain m’a racont´e qu’ils avaient ´ et´e poursuivis par un ours au Canada. Nous n’avions jamais ´et´e accueillis si chaleureusement.
Louise had never been hurt, so that she did not know what intense pain was. Alain told me that they had been chased by a bear in Canada. We had never been welcomed so warmly.
The pluperfect may be used to “soften” the impact of speech: J’´etais venue pour te demander d’aller au cin´ema avec moi.
I had come to ask you to go to the cinema with me.
Instead of: Je suis venue pour te demander d’aller au cin´ema avec moi.
I have come to ask you to go to the cinema with me.
Frequently, as has been observed above, the French pluperfect has an easily recognizable correspondence with its English use. However, there is one circumstance where such a correspondence does not obtain. When a conjunction of time like quand, lorsque, aussitˆot que, d`es que, apr`es que introduces a subordinate clause which depends on a main clause in the past, a conditional in the past is used, whereas in English the pluperfect occurs. The French construction, determined by a hypothesis, seems more logical than the English pluperfect : ` Jeanne que je viendrais J’ai dit a lorsque j’aurais termin´e mon travail. Francis a promis de r´eparer la crevaison quand il aurait achet´e des rustines. Le relieur m’a assur`e que la th`ese serait prˆete quelques jours apr`es qu’il aurait rec¸u les arrhes.
I told Jeanne that I would come when I had finished my work. Francis promised to repair the puncture when he had bought some patches. The binder assured me that the thesis would be ready a few days after he had received the deposit.
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The French pluperfect is sometimes equivalent to a simple past tense or perfect tense: Je te l’avais bien dit. Nous vous avions parl´e du probl`eme.
I told you so. We’ve already told you about the problem.
20 Past anterior tense / Le pass´e ant´erieur The past anterior is a purely written tense and is used only in the following situations: tense of main/ introductory clause past historic
subordinate clause introduced by ` peine, apr`es que, a aussitˆot que, d`es que, lorsque, quand
tense of subordinate clause past anterior
In other words, the past anterior expresses an unrepeated event or thought which takes place in a determined or limited time before another, and this latter event or thought is expressed in the past historic. As with other compound tenses, it is conjugated with avoir or ˆetre: Quand Valentin fut arriv´e, je partis. D`es que Marie eut termin´e son travail, elle se leva. ` peine furent-ils sortis qu’on les A rappela.
When Valentin (had) arrived, I left. As soon as Marie finished her work, she got up. Hardly had they gone out than they were recalled.
The past anterior may also be used in the following way: Virgine n’eut pas plus tˆot dit cela qu’elle le regretta (No sooner had Virginie said that than she regretted it); “J’ai compris lentement qu’il ´etait mort, au bout de quelques jours, quand l’´echo de sa belle voix harmonieuse eut fini de sonner entre les murs” (Colette, in Grevisse and Goosse 2008, p. 1095). The past anterior can be replaced by the pass´e surcompos´e, but this is rare and carries little general conviction these days, which is why the example comes from the seventeenth century: “Aussitˆ ot que j’ai eu envoy´e mon paquet, j’ai appris une triste nouvelle” (Mme de S´evign´e, in Grevisse and Goosse 2008, p. 1096). See Chapter 14, Section 14.5 for comments on the pass´e surcompos´e.
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21 Imperfect tense / L’imparfait
The passage below describes the traditional grape harvest in southern France that would take place during the childhood of one of the authors who would share in this activity. It is a question of fond, affectionate memories of long ago. An annual and therefore cyclical event, the grape harvest is evoked with a series of verbs in the imperfect tense which emphasizes the repetitive nature of grape harvesting. The imperfect tense is highlighted and some translations are provided. Needless to add, wine-making is central to the way of life of many French rural communities. It explains the fortune amassed by Balzac’s P`ere Grandet in Eug´enie Grandet. He was a master cooper (maˆıtre tonnelier), and made his fortune from the production of barrels.
Une partie de vendanges dans l’Ard`eche m´ eridionale L’Ard`eche m´eridionale s’´etend entre l’Auvergne et la Provence. Le climat naturel, l’accent des habitants, le patois ard´echois des anciens, les paysages pittoresques font de ce cadre un environnement attachant. Ce patrimoine r´egional ´etait et reste toujours pr´eserv´e. Au moment des vendanges, les p´eniches se d´eplac¸aient tranquillement sur le bord du Rhˆ one. Elles descendaient et remontaient ce grand fleuve, fronti`ere naturelle arrosant plusieurs d´epartements. Les vendanges ´etaient annonciatrices d’une nouvelle saison. Nos ` la voisins poss´edaient de grands vignobles en bordure du Rhˆ one. A fin de l’´et´e, Hortensia et Jeannot nous sollicitaient, pour cueillir les raisins mˆ urs, le samedi et le dimanche. Une matin´ee de labeur se terminait par un Festin de Balthazar dans leur famille. L’apr`es-midi ´ etait ponctu´ee par un goˆ uter savoureux. La m`ere d’Hortensia et sa sœur L´ea pr´eparaient soigneusement un menu copieux et nous demandaient au pr´ealable nos pr´ef´erences. Jeannot ´etait chansonnier [composer and singer of what are often satirical pieces] et garde-champˆetre [gamekeeper] de notre village natal. Il sifflait comme un merle [blackbird]. « Le marchand de bonheur » nous distribuait un s´ecateur, un panier d’osier, une casquette, des lunettes de soleil et une bouteille d’eau min´erale.
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Les jeunes vendangeurs et vendangeuses r´ ecoltaient les fruits et chantaient des chansons populaires comme « Chevalier de la table ronde », « Colchiques dans les pr´es » . . . Une joyeuse ambiance r´ egnait dans les vignobles. Les couleurs chaudes et flamboyantes [bright] de l’automne ranimaient notre ardeur et notre enthousiasme pour remplir les cuves [vats] en bois qui ´etaient rang´ees sur le tracteur au bout de l’all´ee. Ce travail en plein air nous ravissait tous autant les uns que les autres. Les vignerons s’installaient dans le village et produisaient le vin ` proximit´e de notre ´ecole primaire. Lorsque les sur la place publique a vendanges se terminaient, la fˆete villageoise battait son plein [was in full swing] et attirait beaucoup de monde, y compris ceux des villages ruraux environnants. Un char fleuri ´etait orn´ e de feuilles de vignes color´ees, de raisin blanc et noir, de tonneaux [barrels] de vin. Ce char tir´e par quatre chevaux faisait le tour du village. Un bon accord´eoniste assis ` cˆ a ot´e du conducteur jouait, avec entrain, des morceaux de musique sous les exclamations de joie de la population.
The imperfect tense is best studied in conjunction with the perfect and preterit tenses (see Chapter 23 on the contrasts between these three tenses) since all three are frequently linked to each other. In regular verbs, the imperfect tense is obtained by adding the following endings to the stem:
je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles
chanter chantais chantais chantait chantions chantiez chantaient
vendre vendais vendais vendait vendions vendiez vendaient
finir finissais finissais finissait finissions finissiez finissaient
recevoir recevais recevais recevait recevions receviez recevaient
Note that the first- and second-persons singular of these conjugations are the same. Note also that, from the pronunciation point of view, there can be confusion over the endings –ais/–ait/–aient since many French speakers tend to produce a closed e (´e), as in the past participle (chant´e), whereas the more accepted and recommended sound is an open e (`e). Furthermore, with respect to pronunciation, when the endings –ions and –iez are added to a verb where the root is i or a semi-vowel, y (yod), current usage does not mark the difference between the present tense (nous oublions/sourions, nous essayons, nous travaillons) and the imperfect (nous oubliions/souriions, nous essayions, nous travaillions). It is by no means incorrect to mark the double yod in pronunciation, and it could be useful for clarity’s sake. At the same time, an excessive insistence on the double yod could sound pretentious. The same comment applies to the present subjunctive, first-person plural, of oublier, sourire, essayer and travailler, which is the same as the imperfect.
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The fundamental value of the imperfect tense is to express continuance, as of an action prolonged either in itself or by successive repetition. It conveys what was habitual, customary, and describes qualities of persons or things, and the place or condition in which they were, in the past. It often refers to something unfinished, and therefore imperfect. Je chantais corresponds to the English I was singing, used to sing, would sing, and sang. In this sense, it is much simpler than the several English equivalents, which make life difficult for French speakers learning English.
21.1 Ways in which the imperfect is used The imperfect is used to convey repeated and habitual past actions, and there are many introductory words or expressions which provide a ` autre / en temps, clue to it: tous les, chaque, autrefois, toujours, de temps a d’habitude, p´eriodiquement, parfois, quelquefois: ` la derni`ere Sabrina s’habillait a mode. ` cette ´epoque, elle s’habillait a ` la A derni`ere mode. Chaque ann´ee toute la famille ` la mer. allait a Tous les soirs, Adeline s’entraˆınait ` jouer du violon. a ` la Autrefois, on s’´eclairait a chandelle. Autrefois, la biblioth`eque n’´etait pas ouverte le dimanche. ` l’heure. Le train ´etait toujours a ` autre le On entendait de temps a bruissement des feuilles dans les arbres. ` six D’habitude, je me levais a ` la heures du matin pour aller a piscine. C´eline souffrait p´eriodiquement des maux de tˆete. ` dix Parfois, la factrice passait a heures du matin. Quelquefois, l’alarme sonnait sans aucune explication.
Sabrina dressed in the latest fashion. At that time, she dressed in the latest fashion. Each year, the whole family would go to the seaside. Every evening, Adeline practiced on the violin. Once upon a time, people used candles for light. Formerly, the library wasn’t open on Sundays. The train was always on time. We would occasionally hear the rustling of the leaves in the trees. I usually got up at six in the morning to go to the swimming pool. C´eline suffered headaches periodically. Sometimes, the mailwoman would come by at ten in the morning. Sometimes the alarm sounded for no reason at all.
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The imperfect denotes length of time which is usually imprecise: En juillet, toute la famille ´ etait en Alberta. En 2002, je faisais des ´etudes de ` Toronto. m´edecine a ` M. Legrand n’a pas pu participer a la r´eunion parce qu’il ´ etait en ` l’´etranger. d´eplacement a
In July, the whole family were in Alberta. In 2002, I was studying medicine at Toronto. M. Legrand could not take part in the meeting because he was traveling abroad.
The imperfect is used in descriptions of the environment, natural or built: Du haut de la colline, on apercevait un petit village dont les toits brillaient au soleil. La maison des ´et´es de mon enfance avait des volets bleus.
From the hilltop, we/they could see a small village, the roofs of which were shining in the sun. The house where I spent my childhood summers had blue shutters.
Similarly in descriptions of people: La dame ´etait svelte, et d’une ´el´egance admirable. Ma m`ere avait les cheveux chˆ atain fonc´e et souriait de fac¸on si charmante.
The lady was lissom and of an admirable elegance. My mother had dark chestnut-colored hair and smiled with such a charming smile.
Used with the conjunction si, the imperfect is not really a past tense but rather serves to express a hypothesis or an unreality. The other part of the sentence contains a conditional tense: Si nous avions une voiture, nous pourrions visiter le Grand Canyon. Si j’h´eritais d’une fortune, je me paierais un voyage en Afrique. Si mon coach m’entraˆınait comme il faut, je courrais le cent m`etres en 9 secondes.
If we had an automobile, we could visit the Grand Canyon. If I inherited a fortune, I’d treat myself to a trip to Africa. If my coach trained me correctly, I’d run the hundred meters in nine seconds.
As with the pluperfect (see Chapter 19), comme si is followed by the imperfect: Elle a conduit la voiture comme si elle conduisait un bolide en Formule 1. On entendait un fracas infernal comme si la maison allait exploser.
She drove the automobile as if she were driving a Formula 1 racing car. We heard an appalling ruckus as if the house were going to explode.
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The construction comme si may be followed by the imperfect subjunctive (see Chapter 44) in literary language, but this is largely restricted to the third-person singular: “C’´etait comme si ce regard que le docteur avait jet´e sur elle la suivˆıt partout et la contraignˆıt ` ne penser qu’` a a lui” (Green 1927, p. 102).
It was as if this look the physician had cast on her followed her everywhere and forced her to only think of him.
In keeping with the hypothesis with si are the following: Si j’´etais plus jeune ! Si j’´etais vous. . . Si on allait au cin´ema ce soir ? Si nous faisions le cours maintenant et pas demain ? Si jeunesse savait, si vieillesse pouvait. . . Contre toute attente, elle est sortie toute souriante du bureau du chef comme si de rien n’´etait.
If I were younger! If I were you. . . What if we went to the movies this evening? Supposing we had the class now and not tomorrow? If youth knew, if old people could. . . Against all expectancy, she came out of the boss’s office all smiles, as if nothing had happened.
The hypothesis does not necessarily require a conditional in one part of the sentence: Si elle voyait un mendiant, elle ne manquait pas de lui offrir de l’argent. ` la plage, on Si l’on allait a n’oubliait jamais de prendre la ` voile. planche a
If she saw a beggar, she never failed to offer him some money. If we went to the beach, we never forgot to take the sailboard.
Mˆeme si is followed by the imperfect: Mˆeme si tu me donnais tout ton argent, je n’irais pas. Mˆeme si j’´etais le garc¸on le plus intelligent du monde, je ne me ` l’examen. pr´esenterais pas a
Even if you gave me all your money, I wouldn’t go. Even if I were the cleverest boy in the world, I wouldn’t sit the exam.
The si clause in a hypothesis is not infrequently followed by a conditional, and not the imperfect. This construction is not to be recommended, although unlettered speakers and children use it:
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Si j’aurais de l’argent, j’ach`eterais une BM(W). ` la plage, je ferais de Si je serais a ` voile. la planche a
If I had some money, I’d buy a BMW. If I were at the beach, I would so some windsurfing.
The imperfect can imply politeness or softening of a statement (att´enuation in French) with some verbs: Excusez-moi de vous d´eranger, je voulais vous demander un renseignement. Je venais vous prier de le recevoir. Je pensais que vous feriez peut-ˆetre bien de lui envoyer un courriel.
I am sorry to disturb you, I just wanted to ask you a question. I have come / came to ask you to receive him. I thought you would perhaps do well to send him an e-mail.
The imperfect is also used in novels, newspapers, and even television and radio documentaries when reference is made to a single event, or events in restricted time. This form is called the imparfait narratif or pittoresque, and would not be heard in normal discourse: Staline naissait il y a plus de cent ans. Dans son discours, elle ´ evoquait la crise ´energ´etique. Hier soir M. Dupont d´efinissait les raisons des saisies immobili`eres.
Stalin was born more than a hundred years ago. In her speech, she referred to the energy crisis. Yesterday evening, M. Dupont defined the reasons for house repossessions.
Notwithstanding the above remark that the imparfait narratif would not be heard in speech, one could certainly hear in refined language: ` l’hˆ Elle est entr´ee a opital le 15, et huit jours apr`es elle en sortait gu´erie.
She went into hospital on the 15th, and a week later she came out cured.
The imperfect can express a sharp and striking fact or feature following on from an imperfect, preterit or conditional tense. This applies to both writing and speech: Il ´etait temps; un moment apr`es elle partait. Elle ouvrit la porte, et un pas de plus, elle ´ etait dans le couloir. J’aurais discut´e, j’obtenais mille euros de plus. Il n’avait qu’` a dire une parole de plus et je lui cassais la gueule.
It was time; a moment later, she would be leaving. She opened the door, and one more step, she would be in the corridor. If I had argued, I would have gotten another thousand euros. If he had said one more word, I would have smashed his face in.
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The imperfect is also used in a hypothesis introduced by sans, and here the conditional occurs in English. It goes without saying that the conditional could be used in French in these examples: Sans son aide, je tombais. Sans leur intervention, les ` pourparlers n’aboutissaient a rien.
But for her help, I would have fallen. Without their intervention, the talks would have gone nowhere.
With certain verbs (devoir, falloir, pouvoir, valoir mieux), the imperfect is used when followed by an infinitive: Il ne fallait pas le dire. Il fallait y penser Tu devais y penser. Elle pouvait s’en sortir. Mieux valait m’avertir.
You should not have said it. You/she should have thought about it. You ought to have thought about it. She could have sorted it out. It would have been better to let me know.
Devoir, falloir, pouvoir and valoir mieux have the same meaning as the above in the conditional: Il aurait fallu y penser / Tu aurais dˆ u y penser / Elle aurait pu s’en sortir / Il aurait valu mieux m’avertir. The imperfect of devoir can also suggest a future in the past: Ses amis le quitt`erent. Il ne devait plus les revoir. J’ai si bien r´eussi mon travail que l’ entreprise ne devait plus ` mes services. recourir a
His friends left him. He was not to see them any more. I did the work so successfully that the company no longer had need of my services.
As in English, the imperfect or present tense can follow another verb in the past when indirect speech is involved: ` On a dit que Robin ´etait a l’hˆ opital. Je ne savais pas que c’´etait lui le responsable / Je ne savais pas que c’est lui le responsable. ` Je n’aurais jamais cru que c’´etait a elle qu’il fallait s’adresser / Je ` n’aurais jamais cru que c’est a elle qu’il faut s’adresser.
They said Robin was in hospital. I didn’t know it was he/him who was responsible. I would never have believed that you had to deal with her.
With these alternatives of imperfect or present tense, it is likely that the imperfect tense would be used, particularly if the idea in the speaker’s mind sees the event as completed. This is especially true when the imperfect ending is –ais or –ait.
22 Preterit tense / Le pass´e simple
The following passage describes young members of a family picking figs in an orchard in southern France. It relates the conversion of these figs into jam and the enjoyment of this jam by the family the next morning. The passage also devotes a few lines to an accident narrowly avoided by one of the pickers. The whole piece is suffused with a happy tone reflecting a child’s delight in the wonders of nature. The preterit or past definite is used to retell a series of events that unfold in quick succession. This tense is highlighted in every case. Some translations are offered. La cueillette de figues Notre plus gros figuier surplombait [overhung] un rocher et donnait dans [overlooked] la cour d’un voisin, situ´ee plusieurs centaines de ˆge, m`etres plus bas. Le terrain ´etait glissant. Etant donn´e notre jeune a ` nous approcher de cet arbre fruitier sans nous n’´etions pas autoris´es a la pr´esence d’un adulte. Ce figuier de plus de quatre m`etres de haut, au tronc tortueux et aux courbes irr´eguli`eres, nous frappa d’´etonnement. ` maturit´e, il donna de d´elicieux fruits de couleur vert pˆ A ale et violette. En ´et´e, nous ramassions les figues fraˆıches. Ce fruit charnu [fleshy] et juteux, agr´eable au palais, ´etait mon dessert pr´ef´er´e dans sa saison. Pour cueillir plus de fruits, mon cousin grimpa de plus en plus haut sur le figuier. Quand soudain les branches ploy` erent [sagged] sous le poids de cet homme. Les rameaux sur lesquels il se redressa, cass` erent. J’eus une grande frayeur ! Soudain, je fis demi-tour [I went back] pour aller ` la maison. T´etanis´ee [Paralyzed] de peur, j’exposai a ` chercher de l’aide a mes parents les faits qui s’´etaient produits brusquement sous mes yeux. Quand soudain, mon cousin se pr´esenta et nous raconta le r´ecit de cette aventure. Je me remis de mes frayeurs, soulag´ee de savoir qu’il s’´ etait tir´e de l’accident sans une ´egratignure avec un panier rempli de fruits fraˆıchement cueillis. Aussitˆ ot r´ecolt´ees, les figues se transform` erent en confiture. La pr´eparation de la confiture n´ ecessita le savoir-faire de maman. Elle accepta notre aide pour la pes´ee [weighing] des fruits. Sous notre regard, maman lava rapidement les figues sous l’eau courante, les ´egoutta [drained] soigneusement, sectionna le p´edoncule [stem] puis les d´ecoupa en quatre. Dans un r´ecipient, elle versa d´elicatement le sucre
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` l’aide d’une cuill`ere en bois, laissa en poudre. Elle m´elangea le tout a cuire et enfin m´elangea le tout, en ´ecumant [skimming] r´eguli`erement, pour ´eviter que le fond du chaudron de cuivre n’attache. Le lendemain matin, mes parents se lev` erent au chant du coq. Peu apr`es, nous emboˆıtˆ ames le pas [we followed them], r´eveill´es par le d´elicieux arˆ ome de caf´e et de chocolat. Le pain cuisant au four chatouilla agr´eablement notre odorat. On s’en l´ echa les babines [We licked ` table apr`es avoir fait notre our chops] au petit-d´ejeuner. Une fois assis a toilette, maman sortit le pain du four puis nous servit notre chocolat au lait et ´etala du beurre et de la confiture de figues sur des tranches de pain chaud. Ce fut un vrai r´egal [treat] !
The preterit tense is also called in English the past historic or even the past definite. In French it has two names: pass´e simple and pass´e d´efini. It is hardly ` l’oral, in other words in speech, but occurs frequently in writing, ever used a especially in novels and students’ essays referring to historical events. One comes across it in newspapers, talks on the radio and even television which treat historical topics. It can be heard occasionally in formal speeches and lectures since it invests the style with a higher, literary tone. It therefore falls into an essentially R3 category of language. Yet it is not a tense to be ignored even if it does not appear in everyday use, for children encounter it very early: Perrault’s fairy stories, like Le chat bott´e (Puss in Boots) or Cendrillon (Cinderella), introduce them very soon to its use and forms since it is the narrative tense par excellence. French-speaking children, like all students of the French language, need to accustom themselves to the preterit, given its pervasive appearance in novels and historical documents. They learn the models of the preterit, and the preterit of the main irregular verbs, by reciting them, just as one learns arithmetic tables. Here are the forms of the preterit in the four model verbs: je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles
chanter chantai chantas chanta chantˆ ames chantˆ ates chant`erent
vendre vendis vendis vendit vendˆımes vendˆıtes vendirent
finir finis finis finit finˆımes finˆıtes finirent
recevoir rec¸us rec¸us rec¸ut ˆ mes rec¸u ˆ tes rec¸u rec¸urent
Only the first- and third-person singular and third-person plural forms are in current use, and even here, the first-person singular form is not too common. Since the concept of the narrative involves a recounting of what happened, what was seen, what was thought by someone, the third person is often the point of view chosen by a narrator. It is argued that, since the forms of the past historic are difficult to handle, they have fallen into disuse. Such a reasoning holds little weight since both Italian and Spanish have constant and everyday recourse to
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them, and the preterit forms that exist in these two Romance languages are just as complicated as they are in French. The partial disappearance, at least in spoken discourse, of the preterit in French must remain a mystery. As far as pronunciation is concerned, despite the circumflex accent on the first- and second-person plural forms, the vowels here are brief and sharp. Furthermore, the first-person chantai sounds differently from chantais, the preterit requiring the closed e (´e), and the imperfect requiring an open e (`e). This is a difference that is slowly disappearing. Despite the circumflex accents, the endings of the first- and second-person plurals sound sharp and brief, and are not lengthened in any way. Although the preterit refers to a specific point in time, it is used when referring to any duration which has a properly defined end: L’auteure v´ecut quarante ans au Br´esil. La guerre dura trente ans.
The author lived forty years in Brazil. The war lasted thirty years.
The preterit is also used in the passive: Lorsque les prisonniers furent relˆ ach´es, ils regagn`erent leur domicile. ` L’´etudiant fut encourag´e a pr´eparer le concours. Quand son trouble fut dissip´e, la jeune fille lui dit. . .
When the prisoners were released, they returned home. The student was encouraged to prepare the (competitive) examination. When she regained her composure, the girl said to him/her. . .
The preterit recounts in a clear-cut way an event or thought taking place in the past, usually, at a distance from the present moment. It exerts no effect on the present moment, as opposed to the perfect tense. Here are three edited examples of the use of the preterit. The first is taken from a novel, the second from a history book and the third from a children’s book: 1. “Il [L’enfant] resta ainsi pendant de longues secondes [. . .] La bourrasque pass´ee, il se d´etendit un peu, la fi`evre sembla se retirer et l’abandonner ` nouveau pour la troisi`eme fois et [. . .] Quand le flot brˆ ulant l’atteignit a le souleva un peu, l’enfant se recroquevilla, recula au fond du lit [. . .] et agita follement la tˆete” (Camus 1962a, p. 1394). 2. “Une occasion favorable fut fournie au gouvernement de Washington par la r´ebellion canadienne de 1837. Les insurg´es, r´efugi´es au Massachusetts et au Vermont, y organis`erent des associations antibritanniques et provoqu`erent un incident diplomatique entre Londres et le gouvernement f´ed´eral. Aussitˆ ot qu’il fut clos, les deux parties demand`erent la fixation d’une fronti`ere stable entre le Maine et le Canada” (Pr´eclin 1937, p. 110).
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3. “Il ´etait une fois un gentilhomme qui e´pousa en secondes noces une femme, la plus hautaine et la plus fi`ere qu’on eˆ ut jamais vue. [. . .] Les noces ne furent pas plus tˆ ot faites, que la belle-m`ere fit ´eclater sa mauvaise humeur !; elle ne put souffrir les bonnes qualiti´es de [Cendrillon]. Elle la chargea des plus viles occupations de la maison” (Perrault 1983, pp. 5–6). The preterit of vouloir can imply tried: Valentin voulut sortir mais en vain. Valentin tried to get out but in vain. The preterit of pouvoir can imply managed to: Au bout d’une semaine ´milie put terminer son m´emoire. After a difficult week, E ´milie difficile, E managed to finish her dissertation. The preterit of savoir implies to learn: Apr`es trois jours d’attente, Franc¸oise sut le r´esultat. After three days of waiting, Franc¸oise learned the result. The mark of a cultured person is observed in the following set expres` une ´education sions with fut: Il fut un temps o` u tout le monde aspirait a universitaire. J’ai connu votre p`ere, un digne homme s’il en fut. Once upon a time, everyone aspired to a university education. I knew your father, an honorable man if ever there was one. C’´etait un garc¸on d’esprit s’il en fut. He was a witty boy if ever there was one. Some authors write fˆ ut (imperfect subjunctive), but Grevisse and Goosse disapprove of this.
23 Contrasts between the perfect tense, preterit tense and imperfect tense / Les contrastes entre le pass´e compos´e, le pass´e simple et l’imparfait Below is a passage relating a stroll along the Canal du Midi, which runs through Toulouse in southern France. The passage includes a few lines from Claude Nougaro, a well-known poet and singer who sang the delights of Toulouse, his hometown. The term Minimes, unknown to most modern French speakers, alludes to a recondite religious order. Reference is also made to Pierre-Paul de Riquet, a seventeenth-century engineer renowned for his creation of the canal. Toulouse is described as a ville rose, given the brick-colored buildings that stand out most clearly from the air. This description of Toulouse as a ville rose generates a resonance in the whole of France. The piece includes the three tenses: imperfect, perfect and past definite. These are referred to in the text as (imp), (p) and (pd). Note how easily they are dovetailed into each other, at least in written prose. Of course, this would not be the case in speech. Some translations are provided. Une promenade au fil de l’eau ` un souvenir Pour moi, la navigation fluviale s’est toujours alli´ ee (p) a d’enfance. En bordure du Rhˆ one, de nombreux bateaux de plaisance, des chaloupes de pˆeche [fishing boats], des chalands [barges] et des ` quai le temps de nos vacances scop´eniches [barges] restaient (imp) a laires. Aussitˆ ot retrouvˆ ames-nous (pd) ce cadre aux abords de Toulouse que notre regard empreint de nostalgie se posa (pd) sur l’embarcad`ere. Nous saisˆımes (pd) imm´ediatement l’occasion d’une charmante promenade au fil de l’eau [stroll downstream]. La crue des eaux [rise in the waters] ne nous permit (pd) pas de naviguer sur la Garonne. Notre choix se fixa (pd) donc sur le Canal du Midi. Ce c´el`ebre canal a ´et´ e rebaptis´ e (p) le Canal des Deux Mers. Les ouvrages construits tout au long du canal t´emoignent du g´enie de Pierre-Paul Riquet et d’une grande imagination des hommes. Le Canal du Midi est inscrit au patrimoine mondial de l’humanit´e. Les avenues ombrag´ees, tout au long du canal, ont toujours attir´ e (p) des promeneurs. La Cit´e de l’Espace renferme des monuments historiques
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et d’imposants ´etablissements industriels reconvertis en mus´ees ou en universit´es. Ce fut (pd) le cas, notamment, de la Manufacture des ` un carrefour Tabacs. La capitale de la r´egion Midi-Pyr´en´ees se trouve a de l’Europe de par [by virtue of] sa situation g´eographique. Claude ` Toulouse. Il a laiss´ Nougaro, chanteur et po`ete, naquit (pd) a e (p) dans les m´emoires collectives sa c´el`ebre chanson: ˆ Toulouse O Qu’il est loin mon pays, qu’il est loin Parfois au fond de moi se raniment L’eau verte du canal du Midi Et la brique rouge des Minimes [. . .] ˆ mon pays, O ˆ Toulouse, O ˆ Toulouse. O Apr`es une visite de la ville en passant par la Place du Capitole, nous avons ` la nuit tombante, nos billets avant de nous pris (p) tranquillement, a installer dans une ancienne p´eniche marchande, r´enov´ee et am´enag´ee pour la circonstance. Les chanceux navigateurs et propri´etaires de la ` l’autre pour accueillir leurs conp´eniche passaient (imp) d’une table a vives [guests]. Notre balade nocturne se fit (pd) dans la convivialit´e et marqua (pd) un ´ev´enement festif. Durant notre long circuit nous savourions (imp) avec un plaisir intense les sp´ecialit´es du terroir tout en explorant l’ensemble des quartiers de la ville de Toulouse situ´es sur la rive droite et gauche du canal. Nous tombˆ ames (pd) sous le charme irr´esistible de la Ville rose. Les curiosit´es touristiques et les myst´erieuses forces de la nature furent (pd) une source de bien-ˆetre. L’horloge ´egrenait (imp = peeled off) ses heures. Minuit sonna (pd), il ´etait (imp) l’heure de regagner notre gˆıte. La visite de la ville nous enchanta (pd). Nous avons joui (p) d’un s´ejour extraordinaire.
Since all three tenses, the perfect, past definite and imperfect, concentrate almost entirely on events in the past, it seems helpful to provide a synthesis of the way they function in relation to each other. Reference is made to the chapters on these three tenses (perfect: Chapter 14; past definite: Chapter 22; imperfect: Chapter 21) as the starting point.
23.1 Differences between the perfect and the preterit Whereas the preterit is essentially a narrative tense, relating a series of events or thoughts in a novel or historical document, the perfect tense is one of conversation, letter writing and so on within a social context of family, friends, acquaintances and professional colleagues. Events and thoughts, however remote in time, are conveyed by this compound tense. Elle chanta has the resonance of a literary form and Elle a chant´e almost
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automatically suggests speech and social intercourse in a quite different context from the preterit. Furthermore, the perfect tense in French often corresponds to the preterit in English, for it can refer back into distant time. J’ai perdu connaissance is easily used in French whereas, in English, I have lost consciousness has little meaning unless one has a spectacular imagination. I lost consciousness would be more appropriate here. The perfect and preterit do exist comfortably side by side when a dialogue is set within a narrative recounted in the preterit, and this is normal procedure: “Je n’ai pas rec¸u la lettre,” s’´ecria-t-elle. “Mais je t’assure que je te l’ai envoy´ee,” r´epondit-il / r´epliqua-t-il.
23.2 Differences between the preterit and the imperfect Whereas the imperfect tense relates to events that have no clear ending, or take place over an unspecified period of time, the preterit refers to a very sharply defined action or event but almost exclusively in the written form. The French equivalent of the English I was reading the paper when my mother walked in is Je lisais le journal quand ma m`ere entra. The imperfect reflects continuous time, while the preterit cuts across this continuum. Put another way, when we express two past actions, occurring at the same time, the shorter action is conveyed by the preterit while the longer one is in the imperfect. This explanation is better understood by a simple diagram: > Imperfect Elle lisait le journal (longer action) quand ma m`ere entra (shorter or single action)
<
Preterit
23.3 Differences between the perfect and the imperfect Whereas the imperfect tense relates to events that have no clear ending, or take place over an unspecified period of time, the perfect refers to any event or thought occurring in the past but within a spoken context, or in letter writing and so on. The same diagram as above applies: > Imperfect Elle lisait le journal (longer action) quand ma m`ere est entr´ee (shorter or single action) <
Perfect
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An excellent and decisive literary illustration of the differences between the three tenses is highlighted by a parallel study of two of Albert Camus’s fictional works, L’´etranger and La peste. The first work, which Camus calls a roman but which has the length of a r´ecit, is written almost entirely in the perfect and imperfect tenses. The perfect tense corresponds most appropriately to the world outlook of the main character, Meursault, who narrates his past experience in the perfect tense and in the first person, with the occasional interjection of the imperfect. The openness and lack of definition implied by the perfect tense promote a sense of the uncertainty and permanent existential availability felt by Meursault, who feels a hesitation and inconclusiveness over the meaning of his presence in this world. The perfect tense, unusual in the narrative form, entails perplexity and unpredictability, not just with respect to the recent past, but also with respect to the present and even to the future. There follows a pivotal passage in the novel where Meursault describes his murder of an Arab, inconsequential from his point of view. The specific events are narrated in the perfect tense while the surrounding circumstances are conveyed by the imperfect: D`es qu’il m’a vu, il s’est soulev´e un peu et a mis la main dans sa poche. Moi, naturellement, j’ai serr´e le revolver de Raymond dans mon veston. Alors, de nouveau, il s’est laiss´e aller en arri`ere, mais sans retirer la ` une dizaine de m`etres. Je main de sa poche. J’´etais assez loin de lui, a devinais son regard [. . .] Mais le plus souvent, son image dansait devant mes yeux, dans l’air enflamm´e. Le bruit des vagues ´ etait encore plus ` l’horizon, un petit vapeur est paresseux, plus ´etale qu’` a midi [. . .] A pass´e, et j’en ai devin´e la tˆ ache noire au bord de mon regard, parce que je n’avais pas cess´e de regarder l’Arabe [. . .] Mais j’ai fait un pas, un seul pas en avant. Et cette fois, sans se soulever, l’Arabe a tir´ e son couteau qu’il m’a pr´esent´e dans le soleil. La lumi`ere a gicl´ e sur l’acier, et c’´etait comme une longue lame ´etincelante qui m’atteignit au front [. . .] C’est alors que tout a vacill´e. La mer a charri´ e un souffle ´epais et ardent. Il m’a sembl´e que le ciel s’ouvrait sur toute son ´etendue pour laisser pleuvoir du feu. Tout mon ˆetre s’est tendu et j’ai crips´ e ma main sur le revolver. La gˆ achette a c´ed´e. (Camus 1962b, p. 1167)
If one compares this passage to the one taken from La peste, one notes immediately a difference in tone. The Zeitgeist determining the construction of La peste contrasts most markedly with that of L’´etranger since the preterit set within the framework of the imperfect relates in clear, unbiased and rational detail the events of a fictitious plague that struck Oran in Algeria in the early 1940s. The preterit points to so-called factual occurrences that correspond to the certainty of the plague, and by implication to the Nazi invasion of Europe and the horrors it engendered. As Camus states early on in the narrative that he qualifies appropriately as une chronique:
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“Ceci est arriv´e.” Preterit and fact support each other in a truthful account, as opposed to the perfect tense which denies any awareness of legitimate and logical reality. The passage in question tells of the narrator’s discovery of a rat on the landing in his block of apartments, and his remonstrations with the janitor of the block. The rat is the undeniable first sign of the plague and, by inference, of the menace of Nazism. The preterit, couched in terms of historical fact, evokes incontrovertible evidence of the events leading to the Holocaust. In contrast, the imperfect describes the surrounding features: elle constituait un scandale and il n’y avait pas de rats dans la maison. Le matin du 16 avril, le docteur Bernard Rieux sortit de son cabinet et buta sur un rat mort, au milieu du palier. Sur le moment, il ´ ecarta la bˆete sans y prendre garde et descendit l’escalier. Mais, arriv´e dans la rue, ` sa place et il retourna sur ses la pens´ee lui vint que ce rat n’´etait pas a pas pour avertir le concierge. Devant la r´eaction du vieux M. Michel, il sentit mieux ce que sa d´ecouverte avait d’insolite. La pr´esence de ce rat mort lui avait paru seulement bizarre tandis que, pour le concierge, elle constituait un scandale. La position de ce dernier ´ etait cat´egorique: il n’y avait pas de rats dans la maison. Il eut beau l’assurer qu’il y en avait un sur le palier du premier ´etage, et probablement mort, la conviction de M. Michel restait enti`ere. Il n’y avait pas de rats dans la maison. Il fallait donc qu’on eˆ ut apport´e celui-ci du dehors. Bref, il s’agissait d’une farce. (Camus 1962a, p. 1223)
24 Future tense / Le futur
The future tense expresses a fact, an event or a thought which will take place at a later date in relation to the present moment. In English it is made up of the use of will and shall; in French it is formed by adding the following endings to the full infinitive of regular –er and –ir verbs, while the final e is dropped with –re verbs:
je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles
−ai −as −a −rons −ez −ont
Chanter chanterai chanteras chantera chanterons chanterez chanteront
Vendre vendrai vendras vendra vendrons vendrez vendront
Finir finirai finiras finira finirons finirez finiront
Verbs ending in –voir function differently: recevrai, recevras, recevra, recevrons, recevrez, recevront. A point of interest: these endings are related to the present tense of the verb avoir. Once the Latin inflexion system had died out, it was replaced by the infinitive of the verb and the Vulgar Latin habere that evolved into avoir, so that chanterai originally meant I have / am to / must sing (cantare + habeo). These comments also apply to the future tense in Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Although a number of irregular verbs are listed in the tables at the end of this volume, it seems appropriate to list the future tenses of the main ones here. Particularly noteworthy are the two verbs aller and ˆetre: aller avoir courir ˆetre faire falloir pouvoir
irai, iras, ira, irons, irez, iront aurai, auras, aura, aurons, aurez, auront courrai, courras, courra, courrons, courrez, courront serai, seras, sera, serons, serez, seront ferai, feras, fera, ferons, ferez, feront il faudra pourrai, pourras, pourra, pourrons, pourrez, pourront
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tiendrai, tiendras, tiendra, tiendrons, tiendrez, tiendront viendrai, viendras, viendra, viendrons, viendrez, viendront verrai, verras, verra, verrons, verrez, verront voudrai, voudras, voudra, voudrons, voudrez, voudront
24.1 Main functions of the future tense in French The future expresses a fact which will be realized at some future point. It refers also to an act or thought yet to come to fruition: Nous serons en vacances fin juin. Adeline arrivera demain / la semaine prochaine.
We’ll be on vacation end of June. Adeline will come tomorrow / next week.
It also refers to a general truth: Il y aura toujours des gagnants et des perdants. Quoi que tu dises, la Terre tournera autour du Soleil tant que l’univers existera.
There will always be winners and losers. Whatever you say, the Earth will go round the sun as long as the universe exists.
The future expresses a probable happening: ` Halifax, je L’´et´e sera pluvieux a crois. On construira des milliers de ` voitures l’ann´ee prochaine a Shangha¨ı.
The summer will be rainy in Halifax, I think. Thousands of automobiles will be built in Shanghai next year.
The future conveys a polite order which has the effect of an imperative but carries less weight and does not sound so authoritarian: Tu voudras bien m’expliquer ce retard. J’en ai assez, je vous demanderai de vous taire. Vous voudrez bien m’excuser, je vous prie. Je vous demanderai une bienveillante attention.
You will kindly explain this delay to me. I’m tired of this, I must ask you to keep quiet. Please excuse me, I beg you. I must ask for your kind attention.
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Instead of the present tense, a common and similar kind of softening of tone in the future is heard with storekeepers, traders and so on: Cela fera vingt euros. Ce sera tout ? C ¸ a ira comme ¸ca ?
That’ll be twenty euros. Is that all / Will that be all? OK like that?
In this last case, the storekeeper could be referring to an article wrapped up or not. Another type of softening of expression occurs when an explanation is offered. Again the future is a substitute for the present: Tu comprendras que je ne peux pas lui faire confiance. Tu lui feras entendre raison ou j’abandonne mon engagement.
You will understand that I can’t trust him. Please have him see reason or I abandon my commitment.
The future is used to convey a piece of advice or a recommendation: Vous prendrez ce m´edicament apr`es chaque repas. Tu lui parleras doucement parce que, autrement, elle ne ` toi. fera pas attention a
Take this medication after each meal. Speak to her nicely or she won’t pay any attention to you.
It is not uncommon to come across a future set within the context of the past. Such a construction is called a futur historique: La bataille des Plaines d’Abraham entraˆına la chute de Qu´ebec en 1759; ce sera la fin de la Nouvelle-France. Le fanatique puritain J. Brown attaqua l’arsenal f´ed´eral de Harper’s Ferry en Virginie. . . Il deviendra le martyr de l’ abolitionnisme militant.
The battle for the Plains of Abraham led to the fall of Quebec City; that was the end of New-France / that would be the end of New France. The Puritan fanatic J. Brown attacked the federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry in Virginia. . . He was to become the martyr of militant abolitionism.
The future also expresses probability which involves a personal hypothesis or something that is likely to happen, or that has happened: On sonne; ce sera mon amie. Pour qui a-t-on sonn´e la cloche des morts ? Mon Dieu ! Ce sera pour Mme Legrand. Ir`ene est absente. Elle aura encore sa migraine.
Someone’s at the door. It’s probably my friend. Who are they ringing the death knell for? Heavens above! It’s for Mme Legrand. Ir`ene is absent. She’s probably gotten a migraine again.
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The future is used very often in invitations for job applications: Aoˆ ut 2010, la Ville du Mans recrute un adjoint de direction: Titulaire du Certificat d’Aptitude, vous seconderez la directrice dans la gestion p´edagogique. Vous accompagnerez l’´elaboration du projet d’´etablissement et assurerez le suivi de la scolarit´e. The Ten Commandments, as in English, are conveyed in the future tense: Tu n’auras pas d’autres dieux devant ma face. Tu ne te feras point d’image taill´ee. Tu ne te prosterneras point devant elles [images] Tu ne prendras point le nom de ´ternel, ton Dieu, en vain l’E (Exodus, 20).
Thou shall have no other god save me. Thou shall not make any graven image. Thou shall not bow down. Thou shall not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
Similarly, in biblical language: Tu es Simon, fils de Jean; tu t’appelleras C´ephas (John 1: 42).
24.2 Use of the present as replacement for the future An important change is taking place in contemporary French in that the future tense is slowly but surely giving way to the present tense. The present tense is easier to handle. The present can refer to the immediate future: Reste l` a. Je descends dans un instant. On part demain/dimanche prochain.
Stay here/there. I’ll be down in a moment. We go tomorrow/next Sunday.
Increasingly, the present refers to any time in the future, near or distant: L’´et´e de 2014 on fait un voyage en Alaska.
The summer of 2014 we’ll go on a trip to Alaska.
The present tense of the verb aller can frequently replace the future when combined with an infinitive. Again, this construction is easier than the future: On va faire une partie de canotage cet apr`es-midi. Qu’est-ce que tu vas faire ce soir ? Papa va me payer mes vacances en Floride.
We’ll have a boat trip this afternoon. What are you going to do this evening? Pop’s going to pay for my vacation in Florida.
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Two expressions, one more formal than the other, point to a future idea: Adrienne est en passe de r´eussir (R3). ´milie gagne en demi-finale, Si E elle est sur le point de remporter le troph´ee.
Adrienne is about to succeed. If ´ Emilie wins in the semi-final, she is about to win the trophy.
25 Future perfect tense / Le futur ant´erieur The future perfect suggests a degree of conjecture or possibility. This is a relatively easy concept since it corresponds well to the English equivalent, although the English remains in the perfect tense. It refers to an action regarded as completed in the future at the time of speaking. It is made up of the future tense of avoir in conjunction with the past participle of a verb which varies according to a preceding direct object, or the future tense of ˆetre with a past participle which varies according to the subject (see Chapter 14 on the perfect tense for these variations). Here are the main uses of the future perfect: It expresses an action or thought that precedes another action or thought in the future: Quand vous aurez fini vos devoirs, vous pourrez jouer dehors. Aussitˆ ot que tu seras rentr´ee, on dˆınera.
When you have finished your homework, you can play outside. As soon as you come home, we’ll have our evening meal.
Note also that the main clause, vous pourrez jouer dehors, cannot be expressed in the present tense as in English. In other words, pouvez is not possible in this context. It can also express a certainty, an inevitability: Je suis sˆ ure qu’il aura vite r´euni les provisions ` l’exp´edition. n´ecessaires a Il est clair que nos amies ` seront arriv´ees a ` l’heure destination a pr´evue.
I am sure he will soon have gathered up the provisions necessary for the expedition. It is clear that our friends have arrived at their destination on time.
It can also refer to an act or thought that is supposed to have taken place in the past. It involves a probable explanation:
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Future perfect tense Adrienne n’est pas encore l` a. ` la Elle se sera attard´ee a piscine. Je ne trouve pas mes lunettes. Je les aurai laiss´ees dans ma chambre en haut.
261 Adrienne still isn’t here. She’s probably held up at the swimming pool. I can’t find my glasses. I must have left them upstairs in my bedroom.
It can appear in a main clause where the subordinate clause is introduced by si. This is especially so with the verb vouloir: Si les enfants sont malheureux et mˆeme malades, c’est que les parents l’auront voulu ! S’il y a eu un accident, les conducteurs l’auront voulu, ils conduisaient comme des dingues !
If the children are unhappy and even sick, it’s because the parents will have wanted it! If there’s been an accident, the drivers must have wanted it, driving like idiots!
In keeping with the perfect tense, the future perfect may be used in the passive: La maison aura ´et´e abandonn´ee il y a bien des ann´ees Pour ˆetre la championne du monde au tennis, Venus Williams aura ´et´e encourag´ee depuis son enfance.
The house will have been abandoned years ago. To be the world tennis champion, Venus Williams was doubtless encouraged from childhood.
26 Conditional tense / Le conditionnel
This tense corresponds to the English would, so it has a future idea, both in form and in usage. Its endings are added to the full infinitive, just as with the future tense, but this does not apply to the recevoir group. The formation of the conditional should not be difficult. The conditional was once regarded as another mood, like the subjunctive or the imperative, but not so now. It generally involves two tenses, but not always. Here are the forms of the conditional: chanter vendre finir recevoir je chanterais vendrais finirais recevrais tu chanterais vendrais finirais recevrais il/elle chanterait vendrait finirait recevrait nous chanterions vendrions finirions recevrions vous chanteriez vendriez finiriez recevriez ils/elles chanteraient vendraient finiraient recevraient As with the future tense (see Chapter 24), these endings are related to the imperfect tense of the Vulgar Latin verb habere. Once the Latin inflexion system had died out, it was replaced by the infinitive of the verb and habere which evolved into avoir, so that chanterais originally meant I had / was to / must sing (cantare + habebam). These comments also apply to the conditional tense in Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Although a number of irregular verbs are listed in the tables at the end of this volume, it seems appropriate to list the conditional tenses of the main ones here. Particularly noteworthy are the two verbs aller and ˆetre: aller avoir courir ˆetre faire falloir pouvoir tenir
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irais, irais, irait, irions, iriez, iraient aurais, aurais, aurait, aurions, auriez, auraient courrais, courrais, courrait, courrions, courriez, courraient serais, serais, serait, serions, seriez, seraient ferais, ferais, ferait, ferions, feriez, feraient il faudrait pourrais, pourrais, pourrait, pourrions, pourriez, pourraient tiendrais, tiendrais, tiendrait, tiendrions, tiendriez, tiendraient
Conditional tense
venir voir vouloir
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viendrais, viendrais, viendrait, viendrions, viendriez, viendraient verrais, verrais, verrait, verrions, verriez, verraient voudrais, voudrais, voudrait, voudrions, voudriez, voudraient
26.1 Uses of the conditional The conditional can express a wish or desire and, in this usage, it softens the tone of the present or future tenses: J’aimerais revenir un jour. Axelle voudrait nous ` La R´eunion. accompagner a Je vous serais oblig´e de me recevoir. Je serais curieuse de savoir ce qu’en pense Guillaume.
I’d like to come back one day. Axelle would like to come with us to R´eunion. I would be obliged if you received me. I’d be curious to know what Guillaume thinks about it.
The conditional can express a request: Vous plairait-il de fermer cette porte ? ` Verriez-vous un inconv´enient a m’accompagner ? Je d´esirerais un renseignement.
Would you kindly close that door? Would it be inconvenient to accompany me? I would like some information.
It marks a refusal or doubt: Moi, j’aurais dit cela ? Je pourrais lui mentir ! Serais-tu malade ?
Me, say that to her? I could have lied to her! Would you be sick?
It marks appearance, or probability, and is often accompanied by selon, as in journalism: On parle d’un accident. Il y aurait dix morts. Selon certains rapports, il y aurait deux autres projets.
They say there was an accident. There were probably ten dead. According to some reports, there are two other projects.
The conditional tense is used as the main clause with the conjunction si in a subordinate clause. If the event is presented as hypothetical, contrary to reality, the conditional is standard usage. The formula is si + imperfect tense + conditional tense. The corresponding English is If you went, I would come too. Thus:
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Si Laetitia ´etudiait, elle r´eussirait mieux. S’il venait, je lui parlerais. Si l’on m’attaquait, je me d´efendrais.
If Laetitia studied, she’d do better. If he came I would speak to him. If I were attacked, I’d defend myself.
In the imagination of children participating in games, the distribution of roles may be expressed in the conditional: C ¸ a, ce serait la montagne, alors vous seriez les Indiens et Jean arriverait par derri`ere.
That could be the mountain, so you would be the Indians and Jean would come up from behind.
Of course, the present tense would also be appropriate here, and would be more frequent since children handle it more easily. The conditional also occurs as a subordinate clause when the main clause is in the imperfect tense, and a relative pronoun is used. The formula is: imperfect tense + que + conditional tense: Je croyais que toutes les I thought that all the mountains montagnes seraient couvertes would be covered in snow. de neige. Mes parents pensaient que je My parents thought I would be a serais une brillante ´etudiante. brilliant student. Tout le monde disait que ce serait Everyone said it would be an error to une erreur que de partir dans leave in the night. la nuit. Tout le monde a dit que ce serait Idem une erreur que de partir dans la nuit. In these last two cases which involve indirect speech, the conditional is used but, if direct speech occurred, the future could be used, as in English: Tout le monde disait : “Ce sera une erreur que de partir dans la nuit.” It could be legitimately argued that, in the above second sentence with indirect speech (Tout le monde a dit que), the future tense is required rather than the conditional, in order that agreement of tenses be respected. Grevisse and Goosse do not seem to suggest this feature, however, and only offer examples with the conditional: Il m’a dit qu’il reviendrait ce soir. At the same time, since the difference in sounds between ai (closed e = ´e) and ais (open e = e`) is slowly disappearing, the following sentence could be construed both ways: Je lui ai dit que je le ferai. Je lui ai dit que je le ferais.
I told him I would do it. I told him I would do it.
If one were to distinguish between these two sentences, the first suggests more insistence and willful commitment than the second.
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Grevisse and Goosse also provide examples of indirect free speech: Elle souhaitait un fils ; il serait fort et beau et s’appellerait Georges; Les enfants partis, d´ejeunerait-elle ? Oui, elle d´ejeunerait. When a subordinate clause depends on conjunctions like quand, lorsque or aussitˆot, and this clause relates to a verb in the past, the conditional is used. The formula is: past tense + que + conditional + conditional: ` Je leur ai dit que, lorsque j’irais a l’universit´e, j’´etudierais la physique. Le gouvernement a promis que, quand il aurait les fonds, la piscine serait gratuite. Tout le monde convenait que, aussitˆ ot que l’´economie reprendrait, il faudrait investir plus dans les ´energies renouvelables.
I told them that, when I went to university, I would study physics. The government promised that, when it had the funds, the swimming pool would be free. Everyone agreed that, as soon as the economy picked up, it would be necessary to invest in renewable energies.
Note this construction of very high register involving two conditional verbs referring to a hypothesis: Elle le jurerait (que) je ne la croirais pas. The inclusion of the que raises the register even higher. Similarly with quand mˆeme, with the same meaning and register: Quand mˆeme elle le jurerait, je ne la croirais pas.
Even if she swore on it I wouldn’t believe her.
The same high register is observed with devoir in the subordinate clause and the conditional in the main clause. Devoir is here in the imperfect subjunctive: Dˆ ut-elle me payer une fortune, je n’accepterais pas l’offre.
Were she to pay me a fortune, I would not accept the offer.
26.2 Miscellaneous use of certain verbs The conditional of devoir corresponds to the English ought to or should: Tu devrais terminer le livre avant de sortir. Vous devriez ranger vos affaires.
You ought to finish the book before going out. You should tidy up your things.
The verbs croire and dire, in combination with the impersonal on, can have a special and very idiomatic meaning:
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You would think there are angry. You would think he was mad.
This conditional construction also applies to the conditional in the past (see Chapter 27). Pouvoir in the pronominal form may be construed as could be: Il se pourrait que je me trompe. Il se pourrait que la randonn´ee ` la semaine soit remise a prochaine, s’il pleut.
It could be that I am wrong. It could be that the walk be put off till next week, if it rains.
In R3 language, both spoken and written, the conditional of savoir can have the value of the present tense of pouvoir. Such usage often involves the negative: Je ne saurais r´epondre tout de ` cette question. suite a Qui ´etait-ce ? On ne saurait le dire / Nul ne saurait le dire. Je ne saurais faire ce que vous me dites.
I couldn’t/can’t answer that question straight away. Who was it? No one can say. I couldn’t do what you ask of me.
The conditional of savoir may also be used with objects or even impersonally: ` tomber. It won’t take long for rain to fall. La pluie ne saurait tarder a Il ne saurait rien arriver de plus Nothing more annoying could fˆ acheux. happen. Grevisse and Goosse provide abundant examples of the conditional of savoir in a non-negative context, questioning this usage as either an archaism or a regionalism. At the same time, they quote modern authors in support of the use: “La mort, la destruction seule y saurait changer quelque chose” (Duhamel, in Grevisse and Goosse 2008, p. 1100); “Ce n’est pas parce ` un r´egionaliste volonqu’il part du local que Williams saurait ˆetre compar´e a tiers sentimental comme Carl Sandburg” (Actualit´e litt´eraire, in Grevisse and Goosse 2008, p. 1100). Savoir in a full negative conditional (ne pas savoir) is very common in Belgium, although this example is taken from a French author: “Il arrive que la violence nous ´ecrase, et que la force des m´echants ait le dessus ; mais ˆme” (Suar`es, in Grevisse and Goosse elles ne sauraient pas ´ebranler notre a 2008, p. 1100).
27 Conditional perfect tense / Le conditionnel pass´e This tense conveys an idea or an event related to the future in the past. It corresponds to the English would have done/spoken/walked = aurait fait/parl´e/march´e. Being a compound tense, it can involve the obligatory use of the verb ˆetre as an auxiliary, with the attendant agreement: She would have left / They would have gone out / gotten up = Elle serait partie / Ils seraient sortis / Ils se seraient lev´es. Here are the main four conjugations: j’ tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles
chanter aurais chant´e aurais chant´e aurait chant´e aurions chant´e auriez chant´e auraient chant´e
vendre aurais vendu aurais vendu aurait vendu aurions vendu auriez vendu auraient vendu
finir aurais fini aurais fini aurait fini aurions fini auriez fini auraient fini
recevoir aurais rec¸u aurais rec¸u aurait rec¸u aurions rec¸u auriez rec¸u auraient rec¸u
See Chapter 14 for agreement with verbs conjugated with ˆetre. This includes reflexive verbs. Here is just one example of each: Partir: je serais parti(e), tu serais parti(e), il serait parti, elle serait partie, nous serions parti(e)s, vous seriez parti(e)(s), ils seraient partis, elles seraient parties Se lever: je me serais lev´e(e), tu te serais lev´e(e), il se serait lev´e, elle se serait lev´ee, nous nous serions lev´e(e)s, vous vous seriez lev´e(e)(s), ils se seraient lev´es, elles se seraient lev´ees
27.1 Uses of the conditional perfect The most common use of the conditional perfect is in its combination with the conjunction si and imperfect: Si tu ´etais venue, on aurait pu fˆeter ton anniversaire. Si le ch`eque ´etait arriv´e plus tˆ ot, je l’aurais vers´e sur mon compte aujourd’hui.
If you had come, we could have celebrated your birthday. If the check had arrived sooner, I would have paid it into my account today. 267
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Si l’on avait achet´e les actions il y a quinze jours, nous aurions gagn´e des millions. ` sept heures, Si tu l’avais appel´ee a elle se serait lev´ee tout de suite.
If we had bought the shares a fortnight ago, we would have gained millions. If you had called her at seven, she would have gotten up straight away.
In R3 language, the pluperfect subjunctive can replace the pluperfect tense. One would find this subjunctive construction these days only in the third-person singular (see Chapter 44 on the subjunctive): Si elle fˆ ut partie, son mari aurait ´et´e agac´e. S’il m’eˆ ut parl´e de la sorte, je lui aurais donn´e une verte semonce.
If she had left, her husband would have been annoyed. If he had spoken to me like that, I would have given him a sharp reprimand.
A similar meaning is conveyed by the combination of two conditionals in the past, as opposed to the formula stated above. This construction is very high register, is found in literature but has little currency these days: Lafcadio aurait ´ et´e d’aspect farouche que peut-ˆetre Julius aurait pris peur. Aurait-elle os´e partir toute seule qu’elle n’aurait pas ´et´e inqui`ete.
If Lafcadio had seemed fierce, perhaps Julius would have been afraid. If she had dared to go alone, she would not have been worried.
The conditional perfect can be used as part of a subordinate clause dependent on a past tense and a conditional: Marie a dit qu’elle partirait d`es que je l’aurais appel´ee. Hier soir, j’avais pr´evu que, lorsque l’ouragan se serait d´eclench´e, tout le littoral serait inond´e.
Marie said she would leave as soon as I called her. Yesterday evening, I had predicted that, when the hurricane began, the whole coastline would be flooded.
The conditional in the past can also depend on other factors which are not necessarily explicitly stated by a finite verb: Un si`ecle plus tˆ ot il aurait ´et´e mis ` mort. a Arriv´ee dix minutes apr`es, elle serait tomb´ee dans le panneau.
A century earlier, they would have executed him. If she had arrived ten minutes later, she would have fallen into the trap.
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The statement of appearance, often introduced by selon, can lead to the conditional in the past dependent on an imperfect or simply an event in the past, just as a present tense can lead to the conditional. The notion is one of “likely” or “probable”: Le train a d´eraill´e. Selon un t´emoin oculaire, il y aurait eu plusieurs morts. Tremblement de terre en Iran: la catastrophe aurait fait des milliers de morts.
The train was derailed. According to an eyewitness, there were several dead. Earthquake in Iran: the catastrophe has probably caused thousands of deaths.
27.2 Miscellaneous features with dire, devoir, falloir, pouvoir, vouloir The conditional perfect of dire with the impersonal on can express the idea of appearance in relation to a past event or thought, just as the conditional expresses appearance in relation to the present: Un orage ? On aurait dit un ouragan ! On entendait hurler dans la rue. On aurait dit une bande de voyous.
A storm? You would have thought it was a hurricane! We could hear them shouting in the street. You would have thought they were a bunch of hoodlums/louts.
In R3 literary discourse, the conditional in the past can be replaced by the pluperfect subjunctive: Il a fait beau toute la semaine. On eˆ ut dit des vacances paradisiaques. Quelques escarmouches ? On eˆ ut dit une v´eritable r´evolution.
The weather was fine all week. The vacation seemed like paradise. Skirmishes? It looked like a real revolution.
The conditional perfect of devoir expresses the idea of obligation as in the English ought to have: Tu aurais dˆ u appeler plus tˆ ot. Vous auriez dˆ u visiter les chutes du Niagara avant de quitter le Canada.
You ought to have called earlier. You should have visited the Niagara Falls before leaving Canada.
The conditional perfect of falloir has the same value as devoir in this context: Il aurait fallu avertir Francis You should have alerted Francis avant. before. Je ne sais pas pourquoi tu es I don’t know why you came back so rentr´ee si tˆ ot. Il aurait fallu y soon. You should have spent the passer toute la journ´ee. whole day there.
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The imperfect of falloir conveys the same meaning: Audrey ´etait malade dans la voiture. Elle a vomi. Je lui ai dit qu’il fallait nous le dire avant. Il fallait imp´erativement faire le plein avant de quitter la cˆ ote.
Audrey was unwell in the car. She was sick. I told her she should have told us before. You/We should really have filled up before leaving the coast.
The conditional perfect of falloir can also suggest supposition, hypothesis = must have: Il aurait fallu ˆetre un g´enie pour He must have been a genius to invent inventer un tel proc´ed´e. such a technique. Il aurait fallu ˆetre un fou pour He must have been mad to shoot the descendre les rapides du Saint Lawrence rapids. Saint-Laurent. Interestingly enough, the perfect tense of devoir has the same meaning: Elle a dˆ u ˆetre drˆ olement intelligente pour obtenir ce r´esultat-l` a.
She must have been really intelligent to get that result.
The imperfect tense of devoir has a similar meaning in this context: Elle devait ˆetre drˆ olement intelligente pour passer l’agr´egation.
She must have been really intelligent to pass the agr´egation.
Both pouvoir and vouloir occur very frequently in the conditional perfect: On aurait pu se tirer d’affaire tout seuls. Sabrina aurait voulu rester avec ses amies.
We could have managed by ourselves. Sabrina would have liked to remain with her friends.
28 Progressive tense, present participle, gerund / Le temps progressif, le participe pr´esent, le g´erondif It is necessary to treat these three structures together since they can easily be confused. They all express an activity in progress, an act or thought in the process of being realized. The progressive tense is the simplest one to deal with in the sense that it does not exist in modern French. However, it does attract at least one observation. Whereas all Romance languages, and English for that matter, rely quite heavily on the progressive tense, with its attendant nuances, its absence in modern French must be conceived as a radical deficiency. The French language fails to deal adequately with the English He is reading, which has its Italian and Spanish equivalents (Italian: Sta leggendo; Spanish: Est´ a leyendo), and has recourse to a cumbersome but common Il est en train de lire, or the lame Il lit. Similarly, French cannot truly accommodate the past progressive tense He was reading (Italian: Stava leggendo; Spanish: Estaba/Estuvo leyendo), except with the help of en train de: Il ´etait en train de lire. It may be legitimately argued that the French imperfect does perform this function moderately well (Il lisait), but this tense does not suggest the vigor and nuance apparent in the other languages referred to. Finally, a future progressive is inaccessible to French: He will be reading (Italian: Star` a leggendo; Spanish: Estar´ a leyendo). One has to wonder whether the differences between the present participle and the gerund are so fine and even imperceptible that attempting to define distinctions leads to a cul-de-sac. It has to be underlined that an extremely high percentage of French-speaking people do not recognize the peculiarities entailed in each term. The following remarks on the values of the present participle as against the gerund are therefore to be treated with caution, although, at the same time, there are circumstances where one form would obtain, and not the other, and vice versa. The majority of French speakers would doubtless know the correctness of use without knowing how to state the rule. As with the gerund, the actual form of the present participle is created from the root of the first-person plural of the present indicative: chanter > chantant, vendre > vendant, finir > finissant, recevoir > recevant. Three verbs have an irregular present participle: ˆetre > ´etant, avoir > ayant, savoir > sachant. 271
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28.1 Uses of the present participle The present participle is used as a verb and essentially restricted to writing. It relates to a noun or pronoun but it is invariable. Hence one writes Des gens portant des pancartes d´efilaient dans la rue, with no s attached to portant. The present participle has no temporal value, and assumes the tense of the main verb and main clause. It can be placed in the negative and followed by a complement: Voulant bronzer, elle se met de la cr`eme solaire. Voulant bronzer, elle s’est mis de la cr`eme solaire. Voulant bronzer, elle se mettra de la cr`eme solaire. Voulant bronzer, elle se mit de la cr`eme solaire. Ne voulant pas bronzer, elle ` l’ombre. reste / est rest´ee a
Wanting to get a tan, she puts on some suntan lotion. Wanting to get a tan, she put on some suntan lotion. Wanting to get a tan, she will put on some suntan lotion. Wanting to get a tan, she put on some suntan lotion. Not wanting to get a tan, she stays/ stayed in the shade.
It can have the value of a relative subordinate clause: Les personnes ayant (qui ont) un ticket bleu doivent se pr´esenter au contrˆ ole. Une fillette portant (qui portait) un ´enorme bouquet s’avanc¸a vers le pr´esident.
Persons having (who have/with) a blue ticket must go to the checkpoint. A girl with an enormous bouquet walked toward the president.
It can have the value of a subordinate clause of circumstance: Ne sachant pas (Comme je ne savais pas) te joindre, je n’ai pas pu vous pr´evenir de mon retour. R´epondant (Quand elle a r´epondu) aux questions des journalistes, la ministre a confirm´e qu’elle se rendrait en Russie prochainement.
Not knowing how to get hold of you, I couldn’t let you know that I was coming back. Replying to the journalists’ questions, the minister confirmed that she would go to Russia in the near future.
In standard French, the subject of the present participle is the same as the subject of the main clause, as observed above, but one does hear (and the ´tant absent tout le week-end, ils n’ont pas construction is common enough) E pu me pr´evenir, which is clearly R1 while the recommended R2 construction ´tant absent tout le week-end, je n’ai pas pu ˆetre pr´evenu. is E In a high register, the present participle can have its own subject, particularly when the subordinate clause is at the beginning of the sentence,
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and separated from the main clause by a comma. A cause is usually expressed here: La neige n’arrˆetant pas de tomber (Comme la neige n’arrˆetait pas de tomber), la circulation ´etait difficile. Tous les hˆ otels du centre-ville affichant complet, nous avons dˆ u ` la p´eriph´erie. en chercher un a Les bˆetes se fatiguant rapidement, nous devrons faire plusieurs haltes.
As the snow did not stop falling, driving was difficult.
Since all the hotels downtown were full, we had to find one outside the town center. With the animals tiring quickly, we’ll need to stop several times.
Used with a determiner (un/le/ce, etc.), a certain number of present participles have become nouns: un arrivant, un commerc¸ant, un courant, un habitant, un manifestant, un montant, un partant, un passant, un tournant, ` tout venant, un vivant. Some of these are used more in the plural: les a ` tous venants. arrivants et les partants, les vivants et les morts, a The present participle can have the value of an adjective, this variation frequently producing two forms of spelling, a feature that can be confusing even for French speakers. It goes without saying that, whereas the present participle remains invariable, the adjectival form is subject to change according to gender and number. In this list, the present participle precedes the participle as adjective: adh´erant/ adh´erent; co¨ıncidant/co¨ıncident; communiquant/communicant; convainquant/ convaincant; convergeant/convergent; d´etergeant/d´etergent; diff´erant/diff´erent; ´emergeant/´emergent; ´equivalant/´equivalent; excellant/excellent; extravaguant/ extravagant; fatiguant/fatigant; intriguant/intrigant; naviguant/navigant; n´egligeant/n´egligent; pr´ec´edant/pr´ec´edent; provoquant/provocant; somnolant/ somnolent; suffoquant/suffocant; zigzaguant/zigzagant. Examples illustrating difference in usage: Present participle Convainquant ses parents de la justesse de sa cause, Marcel a pu gagner le pari. ´ mergeant des t´en`ebres, E l’agresseur a bondi sur la victime. N´egligeant sa responsabilit´e, la m`ere a laiss´e ses enfants seuls toute la soir´ee. ` Pr´ecedant tous les participants a la randonn´ee, St´ephanie est ` l’auberge. arriv´ee la premi`ere a
Participle as adjective un argument convaincant
Les pays ´ emergents se d´efendent difficilement sur le march´e mondial. C’est une employ´ee n´egligente, elle est toujours en retard dans son travail. La semaine pr´ec´edente, j’ai pu profiter d’une forte r´eduction.
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Ils se sont tromp´es de route en suivant des cheminements zigzagants.
Note that the two constructions have the same form in attaquant, subjuguant, piquant and trafiquant. If the complement is indispensable to the meaning and refers to an action, a present participle is used, but if the word describes the noun, an adjective occurs. Compare the two following sentences, and note the application of commas appropriately placed: La fillette, ob´eissant ` sa m`ere, alla se coucher and La fillette ob´eissante alla se coucher. In the first a case, it is not necessary to consider that obedience is a characteristic of the girl. She could obey on this one occasion, while in the second case she is both obedient and obeys. Brillant is another excellent illustration of the present-participle use (first expression) and the adjectival use (second expression): des toits brillant au soleil or des toits brillants au soleil. Finally, consider p´etillant: le champagne p´etillant dans la coupe, as opposed to de l’orangeade p´etillante or les yeux p´etillants. Certain present participles have become verbal adjectives which agree in gender and number with the noun they relate to: des livres int´eressants, une rue tr`es passante (very busy), une entr´ee payante, des personnes bien portantes (people in good health). In a certain number of fixed expressions, the present participle is variable, performing the function of an adjective, and irregularities abound: un caf´e chantant (the caf´e does not sing, but rather the customers), argent comptant / deniers comptants (second expression is R3; prompt payment in cash), avocat/m´edecin consultant, une entr´ee/place payante, cabinets payants (see caf´e chantant above), couleur voyante, rue passante, un endroit commerc¸ant, poste restante, chemin glissant, soir´ee dansante, un th´e ` la nuit tombante, une personne bien portante (healthy person) / dansant, a m´efiante / repentante, la partie plaignante (plaintiff), (payer) en esp`eces son` prix coˆ nantes (et tr´ebuchantes) (humorous expression = cash), a utant (at ` sept heures sonnantes/battantes/tapantes (right on seven o’clock), cost price), a ` sept heures sonnant/battant/tapant, toute(s) affaire(s) cessante(s) but also a (R3; straightaway/forthwith), tous empˆechements cessants (R3; forthwith), les tenants et les aboutissants de quelque chose (R3; the ins and outs of something), les allants et venants (people who are coming and going), s´eance tenante (R3; in the course of the proceedings, immediately), les ayants droit ` lui appartenante (R3) / a ` lui (R3; legal claimants/beneficiaries), une maison a appartenant, une affaire pendante (R3). The present participle of parler often combines with certain adverbs which precede it: ´ecologiquement/´economiquement/franchement/
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militairement/politiquement/socialement parlant = ecologically/economically . . . speaking. Many grammarians do not admit a present participle adjoining a noun which is the subject of a following clause. They find it clumsy, but Hanse and Blampain express satisfaction with it. An offending sentence could be La m`ere a vu son mari et sa fille se dirigeant vers la maison. But La m`ere a vu son mari et sa fille qui se dirigeaient vers la maison seems more clumsy, according to the authors quoted above. Similarly, the sentence Il a vu ` travers bois would find censure with many, while it des chiens courant a ` travers may be legitimately argued that Il a vu des chiens qui couraient a bois does not improve matters. Clearly, both constructions are equally acceptable.
28.2 Uses of the gerund The gerund, whether accompanied by the preposition en or not, and it usually is, denotes action and is invariable: On apprend en lisant; une femme charmant ses auditeurs. The present participle denotes a state or quality; it is variable and therefore functions like an adjective: Une femme charmante. The gerund occurs much more frequently in the contemporary language than the present participle. In a general way, it is used in conjunction with another verb to indicate the simultaneous action performed by the same subject. It would be unusual for the subjects to be different. The gerund performs the role of a complement of circumstance which expresses time, and this is its most common use: En entrant dans la maison, j’ai entendu un drˆ ole de bruit. Mercredi, en sortant (au moment o` u je sortais) de la biblioth`eque, j’ai rencontr´e deux camarades de fac. Elle a ´et´e surprise en me voyant.
On entering the house, I heard a strange noise. When I was coming out of the library on Wednesday, I met two university friends. She was surprised on seeing me.
It is advisable not to confuse the two following sentences: J’ai aperc¸u Paul sortant du m´etro and J’ai aperc¸u Paul en sortant du m’tro. In the first case, sortant is a present participle with the meaning Paul was coming out, while in the second, en sortant is a gerund: I was coming out. When one insists on the length of time suggested by the gerund, tout is used: Sabrina aime travailler tout en ´ecoutant de la musique. Avec cette m´ethode, les enfants ` lire tout en jouant. apprennent a
Sabrina likes to work while listening to music. With this method, children learn to read while playing.
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The gerund may express cause: Ir`ene a pris froid en sortant (parce qu’elle est sortie) sans bonnet ni ´echarpe. J’ai cass´e ma montre en la laissant tomber (parce que je l’ai laiss´ee tomber). Je l’ai fˆ ach´ee en disant cela. It also expresses manner:
Ir`ene caught a cold because she went out without a hat or scarf.
Incorporez les blancs d’œuf battus en neige en tournant doucement la pˆ ate. C´eline s’est mise en col`ere. Elle est partie en claquant la porte.
Beat in the egg white while stirring the mixture.
C’est en forgeant qu’on devient forgeron.
I broke my watch because I dropped it.
I made her cross by saying that.
C´eline got angry. She left by banging the door (This is the way she expressed her anger). Practice makes perfect.
One could not easily use such a construction with passer, which requires an infinitive: ` Laurent a pass´e un an a apprendre le japonais. The gerund expresses condition:
Laurent spent a year learning Japanese.
En arrivant (Si vous arrivez) le premier jour des soldes, tu feras de bonnes affaires.
If you arrive on the first day of the sales, you will get some good bargains.
It can also be used with the suggestion of opposition: Tout en travaillant beaucoup ´l´eonore pour ses examens, E faisait souvent la fˆete.
Even when studying hard for her exams, ´ El´eonore often went to parties.
Another way of expressing this idea is with bien que/quoique: Bien qu’/ Quoiqu’elle travaille . . . En is sometimes omitted with the gerund in certain archaisms which have a literary resonance and are not uncommon. This is notably true with the verb aller: Ils allaient criant dans les rues.
They went shouting through the streets.
A number of archaisms connected with the gerund have persisted quite vigorously to this day. One finds them more in the written form. Nevertheless, they are common enough: chemin faisant (as we went our way / on
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our way); tambour battant (quickly, briskly), as in Ils sont accourus tambour battant; ce disant (having said that), ce faisant (having done that). If there is a succession of gerunds, the en is generally repeated: en entrant et en sortant Although one says: en allant et venant
when coming in and going out coming and going
If the meaning is close in the two verbs, the second en may be omitted: En disant et r´ep´etant que. . . En expliquant et d´eveloppant l’id´ee. . .
While saying and repeating that. . . While explaining and developing the idea. . .
Aller and s’en aller may be followed by the present participle or the gerund with or without en, and here they are invariable. Used in this way, they both mark progression or continuity, and have high-register, literary associations: Les couleurs allaient se d´egradant. La maladie va s’aggravant. Les rivalit´es sont all´ees crescendo.
The colors slowly faded away. The sickness continues to get worse. The rivalry continued to intensify.
In this last case, aller can be replaced by ˆetre, notably in compound tenses: La plupart de ces difficult´es ont ´et´e en s’aggravant.
Most of these difficulties have been getting / got worse.
There are circumstances when the subjects are not the same for both verbs. It is here a question of set expressions where there is no room for ambiguity: L’app´etit vient en mangeant. Soit dit en passant. . .
Eating makes you hungry. By the way / Let it be said in passing. . .
When en has the meaning of in the manner of, it does not really constitute a gerund, as in: Ils ont agi en conqu´erants. Here conqu´erants is a noun. Similarly Il a agi en despote / en jaloux. One very common and idiomatic use of the progressive tense is: C’est gagnant gagnant.
It’s a win-win situation.
29 Imperative mood / Le mode imp´eratif
The passage below evokes the fantasy world that invades the center of New York during the festive season of Christmas. This enchanting period in the Big Apple can be bitterly cold, hence the injunctions, in the imperative form, with respect to protecting oneself against the wintry rigors. All three imperatives, including the reflexive, come into play: the second-person plural (Visitez, ´etudiez) exhorting people to come to New York; the second-person singular, resorted to by a friend who almost commands the author to put on extra layers before facing the glacial elements (Couvre-toi, N’oublie pas, Met); and finally the collective order of the first-person plural (Proc´edons, Mettons, attendons). Note the singular form of gratte-ciel alluded to in Chapter 10 on number, Section 10.2. Some translations are offered. ` New York La magie de No¨el a ´tats-Unis montre des signes La vaste conurbation de la cˆ ote nord-est des E ext´erieurs de richesse et ´egalement d’extrˆeme pauvret´e. Visitez cette ` New m´egalopole et ´etudiez-la sous tous ses angles ! Faites un voyage a York et p´en´etrez dans une soci´et´e multiculturelle o` u plusieurs communaut´es cohabitent. Ainsi Big Apple est la ville cosmopolite par excellence. Admirez les monuments impressionnants et les gratte-ciel de Manhattan qui en font une ville ultramoderne o` u le m´elange des genres se cˆ otoie. ` l’´epoque, les tours jumelles [twin towers] du World Trade Center A ` plus de quatre cents m`etres de hauteur. D’immenses culminaient a gratte-ciel se dressaient dans l’ˆıle de Manhattan. Cet hiver-l` a ´etait tr`es rude. Les tempˆetes de neige faisaient rage [were raging]. Une amie me conseillait la prudence : « Couvre-toi davantage avant de sortir ! N’oublie pas de mettre tes moufles de laine ! Entoure ton cou d’une ´echarpe ! ` te Mets tes bottines fourr´ees [fur-lined bootees]. Ne reste pas dehors a geler ! . . . . » Alors que d’autres amis me r´eprimandaient amicalement : « Allez, grouille-toi [get a move on] un peu ! On t’attend ! » En fin d’ann´ee, le Rockefeller Center sur la Cinqui`eme avenue s’animait la nuit de ses plus belles lumi`eres. Des lumi`eres extraordinaires de toutes les couleurs jaillissaient [burst forth ]. La foule grouillait [milling] autour du sapin de No¨el. Cet ´ev´enement mettait toute la
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ville de New York en effervescence. Proc´ edons par ordre ! Mettons-nous ` la foule de badauds l` a et attendons notre tour ! Avant de se mˆeler a [onlookers], faites attention ! Rassemblons-nous ! Ne nous dispersons pas. Le sapin [fir tree] magique trˆ onait au beau milieu de la place publique. Les guirlandes [garlands] du sapin de No¨el enroul´ees autour de l’arbre propageaient leur ´eclat ´etincelant en d´egageant une atmosph`ere envoˆ utante [spellbinding] et f´eerique. Les illuminations ´eblouissantes des fˆetes de fin d’ann´ee faisaient l’admiration des grands et des petits. Allons donc, chante, chantons, chantez la chanson traditionnelle : « Mon beau sapin, roi des forˆets » en anglais et en franc¸ais. Les conditions m´et´eorologiques ne nous ont pas empˆech´es de sortir et d’appr´ecier notre s´ejour outre-Atlantique. ´tat du New Jersey a excit´e notre curiosit´e. Les quartiers de ManL’E hattan, de Brooklyn, de Queens, de Staten Island et du Bronx nous ont donn´e un aperc¸u de la ville de New York dans son gigantisme. Nous ressentions un froid polaire en cette fin d’ann´ee et un air glacial provenant de l’oc´ean Atlantique. Restons sur une note musicale en m´emoire de Frank Sinatra : « New York New York . . . Je veux me r´eveiller dans une ville qui ne dort jamais . . . »
The imperative has two tenses, present and perfect, although the perfect form is rarely used.
29.1 Forms of the present imperative Apart from the verbs avoir, ˆetre and savoir, the present imperative reproduces the corresponding forms of the present indicative. The second-person singular of –er verbs, however, does not take –es, save before the pronouns en and y which are not followed by an infinitive. The present imperative has three persons: second-person singular, first-person plural and secondperson plural. It has no subject pronoun. Present imperative of –er verbs: Chante ! (Sing!)
Chantons ! (Let us sing!)
Chantez ! (Sing!)
Present imperative of –re verbs: Vends ! (Sell!)
Vendons ! (Let us sell!)
Vendez ! (Sell!)
Present imperative of –ir verbs: Finis !
(Finish!)
Finissons ! (Let us finish!)
Finissez ! (Finish!)
Present imperative of –oir verbs: Rec¸ois !
(Receive!)
Recevons ! (Let us receive!)
Recevez ! (Receive!)
The present imperatives of avoir, ˆetre and savoir are: Aie, Ayons, Ayez
Sois, Soyons, Soyez
Aller is a special case: tu vas>va.
Sache, sachons, sachez
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The imperative may apply to the past, so that the construction is: imperative + past participle: Sois rentr´e(e)
Soyons rentr´es
Soyez rentr´e(e)(s)
The pronominal forms are: L`eve-toi ! (Get up!) Assieds-toi ! (Sit down!)
Levons-nous ! (Let’s get up!) Asseyons-nous ! (Let’s sit down!)
Levez-vous ! (Get up!) Asseyez-vous ! (Sit down!)
Note the use of the hyphen between the imperative and the pronominal form.
29.2 Uses of the present imperative It goes without saying that, as in English, there are certain verbs that do not admit the imperative form, largely because of their meaning: pouvoir (except in the third-person subjunctive form), faillir, falloir, naˆıtre, valoir, pleuvoir (except in the third-person subjunctive form). This latter remark applies to most impersonally used verbs: geler, grˆeler, neiger, tonner. Some imperatives are hardly used: devoir, ´emouvoir, d´efaillir, plaire (except in the third-person subjunctive form), suffire (except in the third-person subjunctive form), vˆetir (this verb is little used at all except in the infinitive and the past participle, being almost entirely replaced by habiller). The present imperative is a command mood implying an order or prohibition. It is also used for offering advice or an invitation, or to express a wish or a desire. It therefore has a number of values. The imperative as the expression of an order: Jean, viens faire la vaisselle. Pr´esentez-vous demain au bureau de la direction. On va ˆetre en retard. D´epˆechons-nous !
Jean, come and do the dishes/washing up. Come tomorrow to the manager’s office. We’re going to be late. Let’s hurry!
The imperative as the expression of prohibition, which usually involves a negation: Ne bois pas de cette eau ! Elle n’est pas potable. Ne sois pas injuste ! Philippe, ne taquine pas les filles ! ` Attention ! Ne touchez pas a ¸ca ! C’est un produit dangereux.
Don’t drink that water! It’s not for drinking. Don’t be unfair! Philippe, don’t tease the girls! Careful! Don’t touch that! It’s a dangerous product.
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The imperative as an expression of advice: Ne te fais pas de souci pour si peu. Reposez-vous un peu. Vous travaillez trop. Prends un cachet d’aspirine ` la tˆete. si tu as mal a
Don’t worry over so little. Rest for a while. You’re working too much. Take an aspirin if you have a headache.
The imperative as an expression of an invitation: Viens au cin´ema avec nous. Je t’offre une place. ` la maison, Venez manger a ` la bonne ce sera a franquette !
Come to the cinema with us. I’ll buy you a ticket. Come and have a meal at home, it’ll be very informal.
The imperative as a wish or desire: Amuse-toi bien avec tes copains. Passez de bonnes vacances !
Have a good time with your friends. Have a good vacation/holiday!
The imperative as an expression of a request: Mon stylo ne marche plus. Prˆete-m’en un, s’il te plaˆıt. Donnez-moi des timbres, s’il vous plaˆıt.
My biro isn’t working any more. Lend me one, please. Give me some stamps, please.
The imperative can be strengthened by the addition of donc: ` la Venez donc dˆıner a maison ! Tais-toi donc ! Fais donc attention !
Do come and have a meal with us this evening! Do keep quiet! Pay attention, will you!
When the imperative second-person singular of –er verbs is immediately followed by the pronouns y or en, it takes a hyphen and an s, to make pronunciation easier: ` Pierre. Donnes-en une a Entres-y.
Give one (of them) to Pierre. Go in!
In this last example, it would be more common to say Entre ! The addition of an s also applies to aller: Vas-y, Michel !
Go on, Michel!
When first-person and second-person pronouns follow the imperative in the affirmative, they assume a disjunctive form corresponding to me
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Give him/her/them some money!
Pronouns precede the imperative in its negative form: Ne te baisse pas ! Ne les regardez pas ! Ne les laisse pas partir ! Ne nous abandonnez pas !
Don’t bend down! Don’t look at them! Don’t let them go! Don’t abandon us!
If the pronoun is the subject or complement of an infinitive, the constructions are the same with verbs such as ´ecouter, entendre, faire, laisser, mener, sentir, voir: Faites-le venir ! Fais-moi appeler ! Va la pr´evenir ! Viens me voir ! Veuillez m’excuser !
Have him come! / Let him come! Have me called! / Get them to call me! Go and tell her! Come and see me! Please excuse me!
Similarly in the negative: Ne me fais pas appeler ! Ne les laisse pas venir ! Ne l’´ecoutes pas chanter !
Don’t have me called! / Don’t let them call me! Don’t let them come! Don’t listen to her sing!
Le, la and les are not elided after the imperative when there is no other pronoun as complement: Fais-le abattre ! Envoie-la annoncer la nouvelle. ` l’´egout. Jette-les a Dites-le avec des fleurs. But: Laisse-l’y aller.
Have him struck down! Send her to announce the news. Throw them into the drain. Say it with flowers. Let him/her go there.
Y and en are not commonly combined these days after the imperative, although they do easily combine before the verb: Il y en a; J’y en ai vu. Whereas, in principle, one could say Mettez-y-en or Envoyez-y-en, which is grammatically correct, one would turn these statements differently:
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Mettez-y un peu de bonne volont´e; Envoyez-en chez Philippe; Mettez-en dans le placard. En and y may follow a personal pronoun. There is an apostrophe in the absence of a hyphen: Fiez-vous-y. Menez-nous-y. Abstenez-vous-en. Va-t-en / Allez-vous-en. Parlez-lui-en.
Trust it. Take us there. Abstain from it. Go away. Speak to her/him about it.
There is nevertheless much hesitation over the two forms m’y and t’y, which are correct but are not commonly used: Menez-m’y. Fie t’y. Prends-t’y adroitement. Rends-t’y tout de suite. Rends-t’en compte.
Take me there. Trust it. Set about it skillfully. Go there immediately. Take it into account.
There is again some uncertainty over these constructions, which explains the “incorrect” form: M`enes-y-moi. In practice, other turns of phrase occur: Veux-tu m’y mener ?; Tu peux t’y fier; Tu peux t’y rendre. If the two pronouns do not depend on the imperative, one can say very easily: Va m’y attendre. In principle, in R1 discourse one could hear: Menez-moi-z-y; Donnez-lui-z-en; Abstiens-toi-z-en (quoted by Hanse and Blampain) but, in reality, such constructions would be rare and would be turned differently: Tu m’y m`enes; Tu m’en donnes; Tu t’en abstiens. Elision occurs after an affirmative imperative only before y and en. Compare Laisse-le entrer and Laisse l’y aller, Fais-le entrer and Fais-l’en sortir. But one does hear: Envoie le y passer quelques jours; Laisse-le y aller. If the imperative is negative, there seems to be less uncertainty or variation: Ne t’y fie pas; Ne l’y m`ene pas; Ne vous y fiez pas; Ne t’en vante pas. Two identical pronouns may occur next to each other with certain verbs followed by an infinitive: Envoie-le le/la chercher. ´coute-la la chanter. E
Send him to get it. Listen to her sing it ( = la chanson).
29.3 Order of pronouns with an affirmative imperative Generally speaking, the direct object precedes the indirect object, and there are two hyphens: Donne-le-moi; Rends-la-moi; Tiens-le-toi pour dit; Accordezles-leur ; Envoyez-les-lui. However, one finds in the spoken language, with
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the more unlettered French speakers, the reverse order, a practice not to be copied but certainly to be recognized. This is particularly true of certain very common verbs: Donne-moi-le/la; Dis-moi-le; Rends-moi-le/la/les; Coupemoi-le (of bread, for instance). If an imperative has a complement which is the subject of a following infinitive, as well as a direct complement, the subject of the infinitive is placed first, even if it is in the dative. However, le, la and les precede lui and leur. Note that there is no hyphen between the two pronouns: Regarde-la nous imiter. ´coute-les t’applaudir. E ´coutez-les m’expliquer le E probl`eme. Laisse-moi t’en parler. Laissez-les le r´ep´eter.
Look at her imitating us. Listen to them applauding you. Listen to them explain the problem to me. Let me speak to you about it. Let them repeat it.
Faire followed by an infinitive needs separate treatment; Le, la and les are in first position: Faites-la-leur envoyer. Fais-le-moi savoir. Faites-le-lui comprendre.
Have it sent to them. Let me know (it). Make him understand (it).
As noted above, apostrophe excludes a hyphen: Va-t’en; Attache-l’y. When there are two imperatives, they are treated separately and the pronouns attached to them are also treated separately: Viens me voir. Dis-moi ce que te penses > Viens me voir et dis-moi ce que tu penses. However, in R3 literary style, if both imperatives are in the same sentence, a pronoun may precede the second imperative: Po`ete, prends ton luth et me donne un baiser.
Poet, take up your lyre and give me a kiss.
Since some confusion can arise over placing of pronouns after the imperative, with concomitant and sometimes awkward hyphens and apostrophes, we have also seen in Section 29.2 above that, frequently, some constructions are avoided and replaced by a simpler statement that does not necessarily ` la barre / au include the imperative: Attache-l’y > Tu l’attaches au barreau / a poteau; ´ Ecoute-les t’applaudir > Tu les ´ecoutes t’applaudir.
29.4 Features in French that perform the same function as the imperative The infinitive often replaces the imperative in general instructions for the public, and this practice is very common, being of a polite nature:
Imperative mood Mettre vingt grammes de beurre dans la poˆele. Ne pas d´epasser la dose indiqu´ee. Tenir au frais. Tenir hors de la port´ee des enfants. Extraire la racine carr´ee des nombres suivants. Bien faire et laisser dire (proverb). ` la fenˆetre (on Ne pas se pencher a trains).
285 Put twenty grams of butter in the pan. Do not take more than the stated dose. Keep in a cool place. Keep out of the reach of children. Find the square root of the following numbers. Do right and fear no man. Do not lean out (of) the window.
The infinitive is also used in a colloquial way, and often in the negative: Ne pas toucher ! (even: Pas toucher !) Ne pas s’affoler, surtout !
Do not touch! Especially, don’t panic!
Also of a polite nature is the use of the future: Tu le feras demain, s’il te plaˆıt. Quand vous reviendrez vous rangerez vos affaires.
Please do it tomorrow. When you come back, please tidy up your things.
In oral communications one hears readily: Garc¸on, une bi`ere ! Bon app´etit ! Silence ! Motus ! Chut ! Pas un mot ! Feu ! Paix aux hommes de bonne volont´e.
Waiter, a beer! Have a good meal! Silence! Keep it under your hat / Mum’s the word! Quiet! Not a word! Fire ! Peace to men of good will.
On public notices one reads: Entr´ee interdite D´efense d’entrer/d’afficher D´efense/interdiction de fumer
No entry No entry/bills/Stick no bills No smoking
It is possible to use the third-person conjugation preceded by que to create the effect of the imperative, but the form is the subjunctive (see Chapter 44 on the subjunctive). This construction has no true single equivalent in English:
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No one go out ! Let them come in! If Jean can’t do his homework today, let him do it tomorrow! God said: “Let there be light,” and there was light. Do not worry!
There are numerous set expressions where the que is omitted, particularly in R3 language, and in the third person: Dieu vous garde ! Dieu soit lou´e ! Dieu veuille me pardonner ! Le diable m’emporte si j’y comprends un mot ! Son saint Nom soit b´eni ! ` Dieu que. . . Plaise/Plˆ ut a ` Dieu ne plaise (que. . .) ! A Grand bien vous fasse !
May God protect/keep you! God be praised! / Thanks be to God! Would that God forgive me! The devil take me if I understand a word of it! May his holy Name be blessed! Would to God that. . . God forbid (that. . .)! That’ll do you a lot of good!
The subject is sometimes repeated by a personal pronoun after the subject. R3 level of language applies here: Dieu puisse-t-il m’accorder ce droit.
May God grant me that right.
The subject can be inverted to follow the verb. This is still R3 language. Ainsi soit-il. Advienne que pourra. B´eni soit Dieu ! Maudit soit l’importun qui me ` deux heures du t´el´ephone a matin.
So be it. Come what may. God be blessed! Cursed be the wretch who phones me at two in the morning.
The subjunctive of vivre is commonly used. It normally occurs in the singular, even if the noun is plural. The expressions here are R2: Vive la France / la R´epublique / la Libert´e ! Vive l’amour ! Vive le vin ! Vive la mari´ee ! Vive les vacances !
Long live France/the Republic/Freedom! Long live love! Long live wine! Long live the bride! Long live the vacation/holidays!
Much ink has been spilt over the use of the plural vivent with a plural noun. Does one still say Vivent les vacances? Probably not, although, according to Hanse and Blampain, the agreement occurs in literary texts. Grevisse
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and Goosse quote an example from La Fontaine, but this is going back 300 years. Hanse and Blampain argue that Vive is really a set formula for an acclamation, and there is no justification for a plural. Adjectives used adverbially can also indicate the imperative idea: Haut les mains ! (Al Capone / Robin Hood) Haut les fusils et en avant, camarades ! Bas les pattes ! (pattes here: R1 = hands) Chapeau bas !
Hands up! Rifles at the ready and forward, comrades! Keep your paws to yourself! Excellent! Well done! (Take my/your hat off)
Often a noun is used along with the omission of the verb: La porte ! Ta gueule ! (R1: to be used with care)
(Shut) The door! Shut up / Belt up!
Certain high-register expressions are found, although they are not set expressions: Ah ! Vienne vite le printemps ! Pardonn´ee soit-elle ! Dieu choisisse !
Oh, that spring would come quickly! May she be forgiven! Let God choose!
The verb pouvoir, in R3 language, is used in all persons: ` ce supplice ! Puiss´e-je survivre a Puisses-tu goˆ uter un plat si d´elicat ! Puissions-nous r´eussir ! Puissiez-vous r´eussir !
Oh, that I may survive this punishment! Oh, that you may taste such a delicate dish as this! Oh, that we may succeed! Oh, that you may succeed!
Some miscellaneous expressions: Soit (the t is pronounced). ` vous la parole. A Chacun son tour ! ´coute(z) ! E
So be it. Agreed. Your turn (to speak). Each one in turn! Come on!
´coute(z) obviously has the meaning of Listen (to me), as in E´coute(z)Although E moi, it is frequently used in isolation with the idea of encouraging someone to accept an argument when that person does not reason properly. It corresponds to the English Look here! ´ coute, ne sois pas ridicule ! E ´ coute(z), le calcul est correct ! E ´ coute, tes pr´evisions ne sont pas E correctes.
Look here / Come on, don’t be ridiculous! Come on, the calculation is correct! Look here, your forecasts are incorrect.
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The second person (singular and plural) of savoir does not really have its English equivalent of know but has to be turned some other way: Sache(z) que . . . (Understand that . . . ). Avoir is often used in the negative: N’aie pas peur ! Similarly, the highregister injunction without the pas: N’aie/ayez crainte (Fear not). Imperative forms of vouloir are: veuille, veuillons, veuillez. However, in the ` quelqu’un (to have a grudge against someone) which expression en vouloir a always appears in the negative, one says: Ne m’en veux pas / ne m’en voulez pas (Don’t hold it against me). The expression Fais ce que dois (Do what you must) has an R3 literary connotation.
29.5 Uses of the perfect imperative The perfect imperative is much less frequent and is generally of a higher register than the present form. It states that an act is to be performed at a determined point in the future, with a specific indication of time: Ayez fini tout votre travail avant samedi. ` Sois partie d’ici au plus tard a midi.
Have all your work finished before Saturday. Be gone from here by midday at the latest.
30 Irregular verbs / Les verbes irr´eguliers
The passage below sings the praises of the highly esteemed and sought after University of Princeton. It highlights the keen pursuit of unique intellectual attainments, for both professor and student. The university boasts numerous Nobel Prize winners. The piece contains a range of irregular verbs in a variety of tenses. Infinitives of the irregular verbs are placed in brackets after the verb. These verbs are highlighted in bold. A few translations are provided. Le campus de Princeton ´tat du New Jersey est n´e (naˆıtre) sur la cˆ ´tatsL’E ote atlantique des E ´tat de New York et le Unis. Il s’ouvre (ouvrir) du nord au sud entre l’E ` l’ouest, a ` la fronti`ere avec la Pennsylvanie. Notre Delaware, et s’´etend, a s´ejour sur le campus de Princeton vaut (valoir) la peine que l’on ´ ecrive (´ecrire) nos impressions de voyage sur cette r´egion du monde. Il a fallu (falloir) un certain courage pour avoir couru (courir) le monde en plein cœur de l’hiver. Nous prˆımes (prendre) au s´erieux l’occasion qui s’offrit ` nous en acceptant l’invitation de nos amis. Nous d´ (offrir) a ecouvrˆımes (d´ecouvrir) le New Jersey dans ses dimensions ´educatives, culturelles et sociales. Cette r´egion faisait (faire) partie des treize colonies de l’Empire britannique. Elle reste fortement influenc´ee par l’apport culturel de ce peuple. L’universit´e de Princeton a acquis (acqu´ erir) une grande notori´et´e ` favoriser la formation des [celebrity]. La politique ´educative vise a ´elites. De nombreux scientifiques en physique et en ´economie ont rec¸u (recevoir) le Prix Nobel. Princeton University appartient (appartenir) au groupe des universit´es prestigieuses connu (connaˆıtre) sous le terme Ivy League. Ces universit´es am´ericaines servent (servir) le public ´etudiant en jouissant d’une tr`es grande autonomie. Cela signifie que leur offre de formation est promue (promouvoir) en fonction du contenu des programmes d’´etudes et de la r´eputation de ses professeurs ´evalu´es, en fin d’ann´ee, par les ´etudiants eux-mˆemes. Les enseignants qui ne donnent pas satisfaction sont d´emis (d´emettre) de leur fonction [dismissed from their post]. Autrement dit, l’excellence acad´emique, le niveau d’´etudes ` et le prestige des diplˆ omes varient d’un ´etablissement universitaire a
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l’autre. Les ´etablissements entretiennent (entretenir) ainsi une grande rivalit´e d’int´erˆets. Les droits d’inscription [registration fees] et les frais ` l’universit´e de Princeton atteignent (atteinde scolarit´e [tuition fees] a dre) des sommes exorbitantes. Les ´etudiants am´ericains interrompent (interrompre) facilement leurs ´etudes pour tirer profit d’une exp´erience professionnelle acquise (acqu´erir) sur le terrain et fortement valoris´ee par l’institution universitaire. Le campus universitaire est construit (construire) en dehors de la ville. Le mod`ele d’architecture des bˆ atiments anciens plaˆıt (plaire) beaucoup aux visiteurs. Les ´edifices sont conc¸us (concevoir) autour d’un vaste parc arbor´e. L’´etendue des bois s’accroˆıt (accroˆıtre) aux abords du Lac Carnegie. Cette universit´e priv´ee met (mettre) en exergue [emphasizes] les mˆemes valeurs que la plupart des universit´es britanniques traditionnelles. Le cadre exceptionnel de Princeton a inspir´e le c´el`ebre film intitul´e Un homme d’exception (A Beautiful Mind en version originale). La s´erie Doctor House, la plus suivie (suivre) au monde, est mise (mettre) en sc`ene [is produced] dans un hˆ opital imaginaire de Princeton.
French irregular verbs are unquestionably more complicated than English ones, which are really relatively easy. (S)asseoir is a good case in point, and it can even be a scourge for many French speakers (e.g., the faulty s’asseya instead of the correct s’assit; the faulty Assis-toi o` u tu veux t’assir instead of Assieds-toi o` u tu veux t’asseoir). There do seem to be a lot of irregular verbs in French. Nonetheless, many of them are quite rare, or defective, so that approximately fifty need to be learned, and several others are compounds based on shorter irregular verbs and conjugated like them. Admettre, commettre, d´emettre, ´emettre, omettre, remettre and so on, among a number of other similar compound verbs from mettre, are conjugated like mettre, while venir leads us to contrevenir, convenir, devenir, intervenir and so on. The prefix re– is notably common here. In this way, it may be argued that many French irregular verbs are far from unique, for a good number may be grouped together. A complete list of verb tables is available for reference at the end of this volume. The tables include both regular and irregular verbs of all types. There are four main types of irregular verbs in French. They may be listed thus: 1. A group of verbs which, however they are considered, are individually unique in themselves, although these may take re– as a prefix to indicate repetition; examples are: asseoir, bouillir, naˆıtre. This group includes a small number of verbs (about fifteen). It includes the baffling aller, which contains a startling variety of forms deriving from three different verbs in Vulgar Latin: ambulare > alare > allons, vadere > vais, ˆtre and avoir also fall into this unique category. These ire + habeo > irai. E irregular verbs form the subject of the present chapter.
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2. A second group, treated in Chapter 31, brings together verbs with orthographic changes: manger > mangeons, commencer > commenc¸ons, appeler > appelons, acheter > ach`ete, nettoyer > nettoie. 3. A third group involves those verbs which attract a large number of prefixes, like mettre, referred to above. These are listed below. 4. A fourth group brings together defective verbs parts of which do not exist, or used to exist but have now become defunct. These are treated separately in Chapter 35.
30.1 Forms of irregular verbs Some of these only have slight irregularities, like lire. Only the more common verbs and their main irregularities are given here – complete tables are provided at the end of the book. The following are not shown here: 1. the imperfect indicative, because it is formed on the first-person plural of the present indicative; 2. the present conditional, because it is formed on the root of the future; 3. the imperfect subjunctive, because it is formed from the preterit; 4. the imperative, except when it is irregular, because it is formed from the present indicative. Verbs with prefixes are given. ˆ Etre, avoir, aller and faire are given separately, since they are so common, and given in full but with the exclusions indicated above: ˆetre Pres. ind. Future Preterit Pres. subj. Pres. part. Past part. avoir Pres. ind. Future Preterit Pres. subj. Pres. part. Past part.
je suis, tu es, il/elle est, nous sommes, vous ˆetes, ils/elles sont je serai, tu seras, il/elle sera, nous serons, vous serez, ils/elles seront je fus, tu fus, il/elle fut, nous fˆ umes, vous fˆ utes, ils/elles furent que je sois, que tu sois, qu’il/elle soit, que nous soyons, que vous soyez, qu’ils/elles soient ´etant ´et´e j’ai, tu as, il/elle a, nous avons, vous avez, ils/elles ont j’aurai, tu auras, il/elle aura, nous aurons, vous aurez, ils/elles auront j’eus, tu eus, il/elle eut, nous eˆ umes, vous eˆ utes, ils/elles eurent que j’aie, que tu aies, qu’il/elle ait, que nous ayons, que vous ayez, qu’ils/elles aient ayant eu
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aller Pres. ind. Future Preterit Pres. subj. Pres. part. Past part. faire Pres. ind. Future Preterit Pres. subj. Pres. part. Past part.
je vais, tu vas, il/elle va, nous allons, vous allez, ils/elles vont j’irai, tu iras, il/elle ira, nous irons, vous irez, ils/elles iront j’allai, tu allas, il/elle alla, nous allˆ ames, vous allˆ ates, ils/elles all`erent que j’aille, que tu ailles, qu’il/elle aille, que nous allions, que vous alliez, qu’ils/elles aillent allant all´e je fais, tu fais, il/elle fait, nous faisons, vous faites, ils/elles font je ferai, tu feras, il/elle fera, nous ferons, vous ferez, ils/elles feront je fis, tu fis, il/elle fit, nous fˆımes, vous fˆıtes, ils/elles firent que je fasse, que tu fasses, qu’il/elle fasse, que nous fassions, que vous fassiez, qu’ils/elles fassent faisant fait
acqu´erir Pres. ind.: j’acquiers, nous acqu´erons ils/elles acqui`erent; Future: j’acquerrai; Preterit: j’acquis; Pres. subj.: que j’acqui`ere, que nous acquerions, qu’ils acqui`erent; Pres. part.: acqu´erant; Past part.: acquis. Likewise: conqu´erir, requ´erir, s’enqu´erir. (s’ )asseoir Pres. ind.: je m’assieds/assois, nous nous asseyons/assoyons, vous vous asseyez, ils/elles s’asseyent/s’assoient; Future: je m’assi´erai; Preterit: je m’assis; Pres. subj.: que je m’asseye/assoie, que nous nous asseyions/assoyions, qu’ils s’asseyent/assoient; Pres. part.: assoyant/asseyant; Past part.: assis. Likewise: se rasseoir.
battre Pres. ind.: je bats, nous battons; Future: je battrai; Preterit: je battis; Pres. subj.: que je batte; Pres. part.: battant; Past part.: battu. Likewise: combattre, rabattre, rebattre. bouillir Pres. ind.: je bous, nous bouillons; Future: je bouillirai; Preterit: je bouillis; Pres. subj.: que je bouille; Pres. part.: bouillant; Past part.: bouilli. conclure Pres. ind.: je conclus; Future: je conclurai; Preterit: je conclus; Pres. subj.: que je conclue; Pres. part.: concluant; Past part.: conclu. Likewise: exclure, inclure (but past part.: inclus).
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conduire Pres. ind.: je conduis; Future: je conduirai; Preterit: je conduisis; Pres. subj.: que je conduise; Pres. part.: conduisant; Past part.: conduit. Likewise: construire, cuire, d´eduire, d´etruire, enduire, induire, instruire, introduire, produire, reconduire, r´eduire, s´eduire, traduire, luire (past part.: lui), nuire (past part.: nui). connaˆıtre Pres. ind.: je connais, nous connaissons; Future: je connaˆıtrai; Preterit: je connus; Pres. subj.: que je connaisse; Pres. part.: connaissant; Past part.: connu. Likewise: apparaˆıtre, disparaˆıtre, paraˆıtre, reconnaˆıtre. coudre Pres. ind.: je couds, nous cousons; Future: je coudrai; Preterit: je cousis; Pres. subj.: que je couse; Pres. part.: cousant; Past part.: cousu. courir Pres. ind.: je cours, nous courons; Future: je courrai; Preterit: je courus; Pres. subj.: que je coure; Pres. part.: courant; Past part.: couru. Likewise: accourir, concourir, recourir, secourir. craindre Pres. ind.: je crains, nous craignons; Future: je craindrai; Preterit: je craignis; Pres. subj.: que je craigne; Pres. part.: craignant; Past part.: craint. Likewise: contraindre, plaindre. croire Pres. ind.: je crois, nous croyons, ils/elles croient; Future: je croirai; Preterit: je crus; Pres. subj.: que je croie; Pres. part.: croyant; Past part.: cru. croˆıtre Pres. Ind: je crois, il/elle croˆıt, nous croissons; Future: je croˆıtrai; Preterit: je crus; Pres. subj.: que je croisse; Pres. part.: croissant; Past part.: crˆ u, crue. Likewise: accroˆıtre, d´ecroˆıtre, recroˆıtre. cueillir Pres. ind.: je cueille; Future: je cueillerai; Preterit: je cueillis; Pres. subj.: que je cueille; Pres. part.: cueillant; Past part.: cueilli. Likewise: accueillir, recueillir. devoir Pres. ind.: je dois, nous devons, ils/elles doivent; Future: je devrai; Preterit: je dus; Pres. subj.: que je doive, que nous devions; Pres. part.: devant; Past part.: dˆ u, due, dus, dues (note these last three where the circumflex disappears). Likewise: redevoir. dire Pres. ind.: je dis, nous disons; Future: je dirai; Preterit: je dis; Pres. subj.: que je dise; Pres. part.: disant; Past part.: dit. Likewise: contredire, se d´edire, interdire, m´edire, pr´edire, redire.
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dormir Pres. ind.: je dors, nous dormons; Future: je dormirai; Preterit: je dormis; Pres. subj.: que je dorme; Pres. part.: dormant; Past part.: dormi. Likewise: s’endormir, se rendormir. ´ecrire Pres. ind.: j’´ecris, nous ´ecrivons; Future: j’´ecrirai; Preterit: j’´ecrivis; Pres. subj.: que j’´ecrive; Pres. part.: ´ecrivant; Past part.: ´ecrit. Likewise: d´ecrire, inscrire, prescrire, proscrire, r´e´ecrire, souscrire, transcrire. ´emouvoir Pres. ind.: j’´emeus, nous ´emouvons, ils/elles ´emeuvent; Future: j’´emouvrai; Preterit: j’´emus; Pres. subj.: que j’´emeuve, que nous ´emouvions, qu’ils/elles ´emeuvent; Pres. part.: ´emouvant; Past part.: ´emu. Likewise: mouvoir (past part.: mˆ u/mue), promouvoir. extraire Pres. ind.: j’extrais, nous extrayons, ils/elles extraient; Future: j’extrairai; Preterit: not used; Pres. subj.: que j’extraie, que nous extrayions, qu’ils/elles extraient; Pres. part.: extrayant; Past part.: extrait. Likewise: distraire, soustraire, traire. falloir Pres. ind.: il faut; Future: il faudra; Preterit: il fallut; Pres. subj.: qu’il faille; Pres. part.: not used; Past part.: fallu. fuir Pres. ind.: je fuis, nous fuyons, ils/elles fuient; Future: je fuirai; Preterit: je fuis; Pres. subj.: que je fuie, que nous fuyions, qu’ils/elles fuient; Pres. part.: fuyant; Past part.: fui. Likewise: s’enfuir. ha¨ır Pres. ind.: je hais, tu hais, il/elle hait, nous ha¨ıssons, vous ha¨ıssez, ils/elles ha¨ıssent; Future: je ha¨ırai; Preterit: je ha¨ıs, nous ha¨ımes; Pres. subj.: que je ha¨ısse, que nous ha¨ıssions, qu’ils/elles ha¨ıssent; Pres. part.: ha¨ıssant; Past part.: ha¨ı. joindre Pres. ind.: je joins, nous joignons, ils/elles joignent; Future: je joindrai; Preterit: je joignis; Pres. subj.: que je joigne; Pres. part.: joignant; Past part.: joint. Likewise: adjoindre, disjoindre, rejoindre. lire Pres. ind.: je lis, nous lisons; Future: je lirai; Preterit: je lus; Pres. subj.: que je lise; Pres. part.: lisant; Past part.: lu. Likewise: ´elire, r´e´elire, relire. mettre Pres. ind.: je mets, nous mettons; Future: je mettrai; Preterit: je mis; Pres. subj.: que je mette; Pres. part.: mettant; Past part.: mis.
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Likewise: admettre, commettre, d´emettre, ´emettre, omettre, permetttre, promettre, remettre, soumettre, transmettre.
moudre Pres. ind.: je mouds, nous moulons; Future: je moudrai; Preterit: je moulus; Pres. subj.: que je moule; Pres. part.: moulant; Past part.: moulu. mourir Pres. ind.: je meurs, nous mourons; Future: je mourrai; Preterit: je mourus; Pres. subj.: que je meure; Pres. part.: mourant; Past part.: mort. naˆıtre Pres. ind.: je nais, nous naissons; Future: je naˆıtrai; Preterit: je naquis; Pres. subj.: que je naisse; Pres. part.: naissant; Past part.: n´e. Likewise: renaˆıtre. ouvrir Pres. ind.: j’ouvre, nous ouvrons; Future: j’ouvrirai; Preterit: j’ouvris; Pres. subj.: que j’ouvre; Pres. part.: ouvrant; Past part.: ouvert. Likewise: couvrir, d´ecouvrir, offrir, rouvrir, souffrir. peindre Pres. ind.: je peins, nous peignons; Future: je peindrai; Preterit: je peignis; Pres. subj.: que je peigne; Pres. part.: peignant; Past part.: peint. Likewise: astreindre, atteindre, ceindre, contraindre, d´eteindre, enfreindre,´eteindre, ´etreindre, feindre, geindre, restreindre, teindre. plaire Pres. ind.: je plais, il/elle plaˆıt, nous plaisons; Future: je plairai; Preterit: je plus; Pres. subj.: que je plaise; Pres. part.: plaisant; Past part.: plu. Likewise: d´eplaire, se taire (but tait, i.e., no circumflex). pleuvoir Pres. ind.: il pleut; Future: il pleuvra; Preterit: il plut; Pres. subj.: qu’il pleuve; Pres. part.: none; Past part.: plu. pouvoir Pres. ind.: je peux/puis, nous pouvons, ils/elles peuvent; Future: je pourrai; Preterit: je pus; Pres. subj.: que je puisse; Pres. part.: pouvant; Past part.: pu. Note: puis is used in R3 literary language, and also in the interrogative at a lower level: Puis-je vous aider ?
prendre Pres. ind.: je prends, nous prenons, ils/elles prennent; Future: je prendrai; Preterit: je pris; Pres. subj.: que je prenne; Pres. part.: prenant; Past part.: pris. Likewise: apprendre, comprendre, entreprendre, s’´eprendre, se m´eprendre, reprendre, suspendre. r´esoudre Pres. ind.: je r´esous, nous r´esolvons, ils/elles r´esolvent; Future: je r´esoudrai; Preterit: je r´esolus; Pres. subj.: que je r´esolve; Pres. part.: r´esolvant; Past part.: r´esolu. Likewise: dissoudre (but past part. dissout[e]).
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rire Pres. ind.: je ris, nous rions, ils/elles rient; Future: je rirai; Preterit: je ris; Pres. subj.: que je rie, que nous riions; Pres. part.: riant; Past part.: ri. Likewise: sourire. savoir Pres. ind.: je sais, nous savons; Future: je saurai; Preterit: je sus; Pres. subj.: que je sache; Pres. part.: sachant; Past Part.: su. sentir Pres. ind.: je sens; Future: je sentirai; Preterit: je sentis; Pres. subj.: que je sente; Pres. part.: sentant; Past part.: senti. Likewise: consentir, d´ementir, mentir, pressentir, ressentir, se repentir. servir Pres. ind.: je sers, nous servons; Future: je servirai; Preterit: je servis; Pres. subj.: que je serve; Pres. part.: servant; Past part.: servi. Likewise: desservir, resservir. sortir Pres. ind.: je sors, nous sortons; Future: je sortirai; Preterit: je sortis; Pres. subj.: que je sorte; Pres. part.: sortant; Past part.: sorti. Likewise: partir, ressortir. suffire Pres. ind.: je suffis, nous suffisons; Future: je suffirai; Preterit: je suffis; Pres. subj.: que je suffise; Pres. part.: suffisant; Past part.: suffi. suivre Pres. ind.: je suis, nous suivons; Future: je suivrai; Preterit: je suivis; Pres. subj.: que je suive; Pres. part.: suivant; Past part.: suivi. Likewise: s’ensuivre, poursuivre. tenir Pres. ind.: je tiens, nous tenons, ils/elles tiennent; Future: je tiendrai; Preterit: je tins, nous tˆınmes; Pres. subj.: que je tienne; Pres. part.: tenant; Past part.: tenu. Likewise: s’abstenir, appartenir, contenir, d´etenir, entretenir, maintenir, obtenir, retenir, soutenir. tressaillir Pres. ind.: je tressaille; Future: je tressaillirai; Preterit: je tressaillis; Pres. subj.: que je tressaille; Pres. part.: tressaillant; Past part.: tressailli. Likewise: assaillir, d´efaillir (but defective). vaincre Pres. ind.: je vaincs, but il/elle vainc, nous vainquons; Future: je vaincrai; Preterit: je vainquis; Pres. subj.: que je vainque; Pres. part.: vainquant; Past part.: vaincu. Likewise: convaincre.
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valoir Pres. ind.: je vaux, nous valons; Future: je vaudrai; Preterit: je valus; Pres. subj.: que je vaille, que nous valions, qu’ils/elles vaillent; Pres. part.: valant; Past part.: valu. Likewise: r´evaloir. venir Pres. ind.: je viens, nous venons, ils/elles viennent; Future: je viendrai; Preterit: je vins; nous vˆınmes; Pres. subj.: que je vienne, que nous venions, qu’ils/elles viennent; Pres. part.: venant; Past part.: venu. Likewise: contrevenir, convenir, devenir, intervenir, parvenir, pr´evenir, provenir, revenir, se souvenir, subvenir, survenir. vˆetir Pres. ind.: je vˆets; Future: je vˆetirai; Preterit: je vˆetis; Pres. subj.: que je vˆete; Pres. part.: vˆetant; Past part.: vˆetu. Likewise: d´evˆetir, revˆetir. vivre Pres. ind.: je vis, nous vivons; Future: je vivrai; Preterit: je v´ecus; Pres. subj.: que je vive; Pres. part.: vivant; Past part.: v´ecu. Likewise: revivre, survivre. voir Pres. ind.: je vois, nous voyons, ils/elles voient; Future: je verrai; Preterit: je vis; Pres. subj.: que je voie, que nous voyions, qu’ils/elles voient; Pres. part.: voyant; Past part.: vu. Likewise: entrevoir, pourvoir, pr´evoir, revoir. vouloir Pres. ind.: je veux, nous voulons, ils/elles veulent; Future: je voudrai; Preterit: je voulus; Pres. subj.: que je veuille, que nous voulions, qu’ils/elles veuillent; Pres. part.: voulant; Past part.: voulu.
30.2 Observations In Chapter 13, it is stated that there is only one true regular series of verbs, those ending in –er, an ending capable of reproducing new verbs to meet new requirements, technological, social, medical and so on. In the same chapter, categories with other endings (–re, –ir and –evoir) are considered as sufficiently common to justify their inclusion as forming “regular” groups: vendre, finir and recevoir (see Chapter 13). Conduire and peindre could be classed as sub-“regular” groups, if one considered the number of verbs they generate. Irregular verbs do not cause disturbance only with foreign students of French. They also lead to an avoidance of their use with French speakers. ´mouvoir is a good case in point. Although this verb is by no means defective, E
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only parts of it meet approval by French speakers in the sense that they regularly and only use the past participle ´emu and the third-person singular (Le livre m’´emeut), together with the infinitive; the other parts seem to have fallen into disuse. Affecter, attendrir, remuer or toucher often replace it, as does ´emotionner which, given its –er ending, is easier to handle. Similarly with croˆıtre, all parts of which exist, but augmenter, again with an –er ending, supersedes it. The infinitive occurs, as does the past participle crˆ u: Au cours des derni`eres ann`ees, les prix n’ont cess´e de croˆıtre / En dix ans les arbres ont beaucoup crˆ u. In the first case, augmenter would take priority with the general Frenchspeaking public, while in the second pousser or grandir would come more readily or easily to mind. Finally, although the list is endless, vˆetir is almost entirely replaced by habiller. Only the past participle and infinitive have survived in popular usage: Elle est bien vˆetue/J’aime bien sa fac¸on de se vˆetir. ` ´eviter aujourd’hui. Hanse and Blampain state quite categorically: A Asseoir: naturally enough, this verb is used very frequently. However, there are some complications since it has two forms, assieds and assois; the choice of which one to use is open to debate. By and large, the former is of a higher register than the latter, and is less frequently used, although according to Grevisse and Goosse, who are both Belgians, the assieds form is preferred by far in Belgium. The present authors also use this form. A consultation in three regions of France suggests that the assois form is much more common. Asseoir is also used nonreflexively (i.e., transitively): La m`ere assoit l’enfant (The mother sits the child down); L’infirmier assoit le malade. Here again, assied rivals with assoit. The conclusion must be that assoit is more prevalent in the transitive sense. The past participle assis means sitting in the sense of seated. In other words, one can only say: Je suis assis(e), elle est assise (I am sitting, she is sitting). Bouillir: this is an intransitive verb. In other words, one can only say L’eau bout; Je fais bouillir de l’eau (I boil water). Fais is necessary here. However, in R1 language, it is quite possible to hear Je bous de l’eau. Cuire: conjugates like conduire, in which group it is included. Some seem to think that this verb is only intransitive. Such is not the case. One can say Cuire un œuf as well as Un poulet cuit. Connaˆıtre: as with all its compounds, croˆıtre, naˆıtre and plaire, the i carries a circumflex before the t. This circumflex is no longer necessary, but is still generally inserted. Croire and croˆıtre: notice the difference between the two past participles in the masculine form: croire > cru; croˆıtre > crˆ u. Dire: vous dites, but the second-person plural of all these verbs is contredisez/interdisez/pr´edisez. Some French speakers, and many children, do not observe this rule. Care should be taken over maudire, which has
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lost all associations with dire save in the infinitive and the past participle. It is conjugated like finir. Falloir: this verb is only used in the third-person singular and all tenses. It is included here since it is so common. Ha¨ır: despite all its parts being extant, it causes considerable difficulty. D´etester often replaces it. The expression prendre en grippe, which is of low register, is a further substitute, as are abhorrer and ex´ecrer, but these latter two do not find their way into common, daily discourse. Savoir: the second-person singular and plural imperative of savoir occur much more frequently than the English know: Sache(z) que . . . > Understand that . . . Sortir: confusion reigns with the compound ressortir which, in the meaning of to go out again, is conjugated like sortir, and takes ˆetre with compound tenses: Elle ressort / est ressortie. However, in the meaning of to be the responsibility of / to be within the jurisdiction of, ressortir is conjugated like finir, and takes the auxiliary avoir: Le cas de l’accus´ee ne ressortit ` la comp´etence du tribunal. It goes without saying pas / n’a pas ressorti a that many French speakers, even authors, confuse both meanings and conjugations of this verb. Assortir (to match) promotes similar hesitation. It is conjugated like finir ` ses and therefore takes the auxiliary avoir: Cette dame assortit ses gants a chaussures. But, of course, one can say in the passive Ces couleurs sont bien assorties; La r`egle est assortie de plusieurs exceptions, comme le verbe assortir ; and Le magasin est assorti d’un grand choix. Repartir (to set off again) and r´epartir (to share) lie at the origin of further uncertainty. The first is conjugated like sortir while the second is conjugated like finir. repartir: Elles repartent ce soir / sont reparties hier matin. r´epartir: J’ai r´eparti les cadeaux; Je r´epartissais les cadeaux quand Jean est entr´e. Since (se) d´epartir (to abandon, to lose, to swerve away from) is only used in R3 literary style, little wonder that perplexity abounds here, and even with authors endowed with the finest style. It would appear that it is conjugated like sortir (auxiliary = ˆetre) and finir (auxiliary = avoir), and there is no clear-cut path forward here: ce calme dont je ne me d´epartais pas (this calm I did not abandon); ce calme dont je ne me d´epartissais pas (this calm I did not abardon). Suivre: note merely that the first-person singular je suis has exactly the same form as the first-person singular of the verb ˆetre. Only the most schizophrenic and ontologically challenged of students of the French language would struggle with Je suis un chien. Tenir and venir are conjugated in the same way. However, one difference emerges very clearly. Tenir has the auxiliary avoir in compound tenses while venir functions with ˆetre. The three verbs with prefixes for venir,
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contrevenir, convenir and pr´evenir, do require some comment. The first and last of these three verbs take avoir as the auxiliary. Convenir causes bewilderment, since it takes both ˆetre and avoir, and this depends on the meaning. See Chapter 14, Section 14.2 for a detailed explanation of this difficulty. Vaincre: although this verb has all operational parts, one rarely hears vainc, just as one does not come across convainc. The conjugations are too complex. The past participle does recur with frequency (Ils sont vaincus), just as one would hear and write Je suis convaincu(e) que . . . Battre, d´efaire, ´ecraser or dominer would replace vaincre, while persuader, d´eterminer and encourager would appeal to the speaker before convaincre. Valoir has all its functional parts, but it is often avoided. The compound verb pr´evaloir has just one difference in the present subjunctive: que je pr´evale / tu pr´evales. Vˆetir see above. 30.2.1 Comments on the use of the verb eˆ tre as a replacement for aller ˆtre can, and frequently does, replace the verb aller in common discourse, E but exclusively so in compound tenses: J’ai ´et´e chercher la voiture au garage (I went to get the automobile from the garage); Tu as ´et´e au Qu´ebec la semaine derni´ere ? (Were you in Quebec last week?). In literary language, one finds it in the preterit and the imperfect subjunctive, although only in the first- and second-person singular, and the third-person plural. This is particularly ` minuit; “Elle fut ensuite trouver so before an infinitive: Je fus me coucher a Madame” (Green 1955, p. 73). Aller used reflexively (to go away) also finds a substitute in ˆetre, but again in R3 literary language: Elle s’en fut le trouver = Elle s’en alla le trouver. Charles de Gaulle wrote in L’unit´e: “Nous laissˆ ames Giraud dans sa villa et nous en fˆ umes dans la nˆ otre” (1956).
30.3 Appendix: poem by Raymond Devos This poem illustrates most skillfully and humorously the torment that can be generated by a French irregular verb. In this case, it is a question of ou¨ır, little used these days, except for one or two forms (infinitive and past participle), and with an ironic or playful intention. Hanse and Blampain state categorically that it is tr`es d´efectif, while Grevisse and Goosse, together with ´va de Villers, seem to ascribe to it all possible parts. Deriving from Marie-E audire in Vulgar Latin, it maintained a true vigor in the France of the Middle Ages, has survived fully intact in all registers in Spanish (o´ır) and in Italian (udire: although this latter verb is only used in writing these days), and may still be heard in the town crier’s invitation to listen to a proclamation (in both France and England: Oyez ! Oyez !). This sound, interestingly enough, corresponds to the standard Spanish ¡Oye! (Listen!).
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In the humorous piece below, the French actor and comedian Raymond Devos, who is always inspired by the vagaries of language, notably play on words and nonsense rhymes, makes great play of the sounds associated with the verb ou¨ır and the name of the bird oie = goose, the screeching and inane call of which explains its metaphoric application to a stupid person. The constant repetition of the forms of the verb ois, oit, oient (sound: wa) not only recalls the pronunciation of the bird oie, but also fits in neatly with the barking of a dog (ouah ! ouah ! = woof ! woof !), an onomatopoeic term occurring near the end of the poem). Not forgetting the very last word: quoi = (k)wa. Finally, the reading of the poem will test not only foreign students of French, but also native French speakers, given its tonguetwisting element. Ou¨ı-dire (Hearsay) Il y a des verbes qui se conjuguent tr`es irr´eguli`erement. Par exemple, le verbe OU¨IR. Le verbe ou¨ır, au pr´esent, ¸ca fait : J’ois . . . j’ois . . . Si, au lieu de dire « j’entends », je dis « j’ois », Les gens vont penser que ce que j’entends est joyeux alors que ce que j’entends peut ˆetre particuli`erement triste. Il faudrait pr´eciser: « Dieu, que ce que j’ois est triste ! » J’ois . . . Tu ois . . . Tu ois mon chien qui aboie le soir au fond des bois ? Il oit . . . Oyons-nous ? Vous oyez . . . Ils oient. C’est bˆete ! L’oie oit. Elle oit, l’oie ! Ce que nous oyons, l’oie l’oit-elle ? Si au lieu de dire « l’oreille », on dit « l’ou¨ıe », alors : l’ou¨ıe de l’oie a ou¨ı. ` Louis : Pour peu que l’oie appartienne a « L’ou¨ıe de l’oie de Louis a ou¨ı. » Ah oui ? « Et qu’a ou¨ı l’ou¨ıe de l’oie de Louis ? » « Elle a ou¨ı ce que toute oie oit . . . » « Et qu’oit toute oie ? »
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« Toute oie oit, quand mon chien aboie le soir au fond des bois toute oie oit : ouah ! ouah ! Qu’elle oit, l’oie ! » Au pass´e, ¸ca fait : J’ou¨ıs . . . J’ou¨ıs ! Il n’y a vraiment pas de quoi ! (Devos 1989)
31 Verbs of the –er type with orthographic changes / Les verbes en –er avec modifications orthographiques A number of groups of verbs undergo certain orthographic or spelling modifications when conjugated, largely, but not entirely, to retain the sound of the consonant as it appears in the infinitive. In other words, consistency of sound is required. As an example, if the first-person plural of commencer were written commencons, the c would not reproduce the sound of the c as it occurs in the infinitive. A cedilla is needed to avoid a k sound, and to keep the s sound before an o. There follows a series of verbs that are subject to spelling changes of this type in the interest of coherence of sound or ease of pronunciation. Verbs ending in –ger: When preceding an a or an o, an e is required: neiger > il neigeait, nous voyageons, protegeons l’environnement, abroger, agr´eger, all´eger, am´enager, arranger, s’arroger, assi´eger, bouger, changer, charger, d´echarger, d´ecourager, d´edommager, d´egager, d´egorger, d´eloger, d´emanger, d´em´enager, d´epartager, d´eranger, d´eroger, d´esagr´eger, diriger, ´echanger, ´egorger, ´emerger, encourager, endommager, engager, enrager, ´eponger, ´etager, forger, fourrager, fumiger (R3), fustiger (R3), gager, gorger, gruger, s’insurger, interroger, loger, longer, manger, m´elanger, m´enager, mitiger, nager, neiger, obliger, partager, patauger, plonger, propager, prot´eger, purger, rallonger, ranger, regorger, ronger, saccager, si´eger, singer, songer, soulager, submerger, surcharger, t´el´echarger (to download), voltiger, voyager. Verbs ending in –cer: When preceding an a or an o, a cedilla is required: avancer > avanc¸ant, nous avanc¸ons, agacer, acquiescer, amorcer, annoncer, avancer, bercer, coincer, commencer, commercer, d´ecoincer, d´econtenancer, d´efoncer, d´epecer, devancer, ´enoncer, s’efforcer, enfoncer, s’entrelacer, exaucer, exercer, foncer, forcer, froncer, gercer, grincer, lancer, manigancer, percer, pincer, pioncer (R1), placer, prononcer, rapi´ecer, recommencer, remplacer, renforcer, renoncer, replacer, rincer, sucer, tancer, tracer, transpercer. Verbs ending in –eler: 303
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When, in the infinitive, an l follows a mute or unpronounced e (for instance appeler, where the first e is unpronounced), conjugated forms take a double consonant and the mute e becomes an open e (e.g., j’appelle). Otherwise, the first set of consonants would collide with the final consonant (“j’apple”), an agglutination that creates an awkward sound.
appeler Present ind.: j’appelle, tu appelles, il/elle appelle, nous appelons, vous appelez, ils/elles appellent Imperfect: j’appelais, tu appelais, etc. Present subj.: as with the present, but appelions, appeliez Future: j’appellerai, tu appelleras, il/elle appellera, nous appellerons, vous appellerez, ils/elles appelleront Conditional: j’appellerais, tu appellerais, il/elle appellerait, nous appellerions, vous appelleriez, ils/elles appelleraient Perfect: j’ai appel´e, tu as appel´e, etc. Likewise: amonceler, atteler, bosseler, carreler, chanceler, craqueler, d´eteler, ficeler, grommeler, museler, niveler, (se) pommeler, rappeler, renouveler, ruisseler Care needs to be taken with interpeller. Here, the penultimate e sounds as with an acute accent (but see Chapter 2, Section 2.6). Similarly with verbs ending in –eter:
Jeter Present ind.: je jette, tu jettes, il/elle jette, nous jetons, vous jetez, ils/elles jettent Imperfect: je jetais, tu jetais, etc. Present subj.: as with the present, but jetions, jetiez Future: je jetterai, tu jetteras, il/elle jettera, nous jetterons, vous jetterez, ils/elles jetteront Conditional: je jetterais, tu jetterais, il/elle jetterait, nous jetterions, vous jetteriez, ils/elles jetteraient Perfect: j’ai jet´e, tu as jet´e, etc. Likewise: becqueter, cacheter, caqueter, colleter, d´echiqueter, d´ecolleter, d´epaqueter, empaqueter, ´epousseter, ´etiqueter, feuilleter, marqueter, moucheter, projeter, souffleter, tacheter, voleter Verbs ending in –eter where the penultimate e takes a grave or open e before a mute e:
acheter Present ind.: j’ach`ete, tu ach`etes, il/elle ach`ete, nous achetons, vous achetez, ils/elles ach`etent Imperfect: j’achetais, tu achetais, etc. Present subj.: as with the present, but achetions, achetiez Future: j’ach`eterai, tu ach`eteras, il/elle ach`etera, nous ach`eterons, vous ach`eterez, ils/elles ach`eteront
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Conditional: j’ach`eterais, tu ach`eterais, il/elle ach`eterait, nous ach`eterions, vous ach`eteriez, ils/elles ach`eteraient Perfect: j’ai achet´e, tu as achet´e, etc. Likewise, although crever here does not end in –eter: breveter, crever, crocheter, haleter, racheter Verbs ending in –eler, but where, unlike appeler, the penultimate e takes a grave accent (`e):
peler Present ind.: je p`ele, tu p`eles, il/elle p`ele, nous pelons, vous pelez, ils/elles p`elent Imperfect: je pelais, tu pelais, etc. Present subj.: as with the present, but pelions, peliez Future: je p`elerai, tu p`eleras, il/elle p`elera, nous p`elerons, vous p`elerez, ils/elles p`eleront Conditional: je p`elerais, tu p`elerais, il/elle p`elerait, nous p`elerions, vous p`eleriez, ils/elles p`eleraient Perfect: j’ai pel´e, tu as pel´e, etc. Likewise, although not all verbs here end in –eler: amener, celer (R3), ciseler, congeler, d´emanteler, emmener, geler, harceler, lever, mener, peser, ramener, relever, semer, soulever, soupeser, surgeler Verbs which have an e acute (´e) on the penultimate syllable take a grave e (`e):
esp´erer Present ind.: j’esp`ere, tu esp`eres, il/elle esp`ere, nous esp´erons, vous esp´erez, ils/elles esp`erent Imperfect: j’esp´erais, tu esp´erais, etc. Present subj.: as with the present, but esp´erions, esp´eriez Future: j’esp`ererai, tu esp`ereras, il/elle esp`erera, nous esp`ererons, vous esp`ererez, ils/elles esp`ereront Conditional: j’esp`ererais, tu esp`ererais, il/elle esp`ererait, nous esp`ererions, vous esp`ereriez, ils/elles esp`ereraient Perfect: j’ai esp´er´e, tu as esp´er´e, etc. Likewise: acc´eder, acc´el´erer, alt´erer, ass´ener, s’av´erer, c´eder, conf´erer, d´eblat´erer (R3), d´eposs´eder, d´esalt´erer, dig´erer, empi´eter, ex´ecrer (R3), fructif´erer, g´en´erer, g´erer, h´eb´eter, h´eler, incarc´erer, incin´erer, s’ing´erer, interpr´eter, lac´erer, l´egif´erer, l´eser, mac´erer, morig´ener (R3), obs´eder, obtemp´erer (R3), pestif´erer, p´eter, pond´erer, poss´eder, pr´ef´erer, prof´erer, se rass´er´ener, r´ef´erer, reg´en´erer, rep´erer, r´ep´eter, r´ev´eler, sid´erer (R3), succ´eder, temp´erer, tol´erer, v´en´erer, vocif´erer (R3) Verbs ending in –oyer change the y to i before a mute e:
nettoyer Present ind.: je nettoie, tu nettoies, il/elle nettoie, nous nettoyons, vous nettoyez, ils/elles nettoient
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Imperfect: je nettoyais, tu nettoyais, etc. Present subj.: as with the present, but nettoyions, nettoyiez Future: je nettoierai, tu nettoieras, il/elle nettoiera, nous nettoierons, vous nettoierez, ils/elles nettoieront Conditional: je nettoierais, tu nettoierais, il/elle nettoierait, nous nettoierions, vous nettoieriez, ils/elles nettoieraient Perfect: j’ai nettoy´e, tu as nettoy´e, etc. Likewise: atermoyer (R3), cˆotoyer, coudoyer, employer, flamboyer, se fourvoyer, guerroyer, louvoyer, noyer, ondoyer, soudoyer (R3), tournoyer, tutoyer, vouvoyer Similarly with verbs ending in –ayer and –uyer: appuyer, balayer, b´egayer, d´eblayer, d´ebrayer, d´efrayer, effrayer, ´egayer, embrayer, ennuyer, essayer, essuyer, ´etayer, payer, rayer, relayer, z´ezayer Verbs ending in –ayer can retain the y before a mute e, but the option of i is more common: je paye/paie, tu payes/paies, etc. Envoyer has an irregular future and conditional: j’enverrai, tu enverras, etc.; j’enverrais, tu enverrais, etc. Note also the verb grasseyer ( = to pronounce the r indistinctly with a kind of slur; a pronunciation typical of the lower social order in Paris and often frowned upon. Not many French speakers know this verb): je grasseye, tu grasseyes, etc., and the first- and second-person plural of the imperfect indicative and present subjunctive: que nous grasseyions, que vous grasseyiez. Note how the first-person plural of the imperfect indicative and of the present subjunctive takes an i in verbs of the –ayer/–oyer / –uyer type. This is, of course, standard spelling, but pronouncing the y next to the i can cause the i to disappear: Imperfect ind.: nous payions, vous payiez Present subj.: nous payions, vous payiez The more pretentious among French speakers would doubtless insist on the spoken inclusion if the i to stress their knowledge of its presence. Many of the verbs not ending in –ger and –cer cause considerable uncertainty in numerous French speakers, who are subject to confusion over the doubling of the l in appeler but not in peler. Do the verbs amonceler, atteler and so on take a double l or an acute accent? There is little doubt over a verb like geler since the French-speaking public are exposed to it during the winter months. Constant exposure to it provides a solution, just as the very frequently used appeler involves little hesitation. Again, does the verb d´emanteler double its l or does the e take a grave accent instead (see above)? Furthermore, even if this question is correctly answered, the actual pronunciation of attelle, d´etelle, brevette and so on provokes some uneasiness, since the sound does not correspond to the sound of the infinitive, and even seems awkward. The problem is most frequently avoided, both orally and
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in written form. Finally, the infinitive, the imperfect and the past participle of many of these verbs are generally the only three parts that are actively used: Il faut carreler (tile) le sol de la cuisine; Tu devrais breveter (patent) ton invention; Le vent amoncelait (piled up) la neige contre la maison; Le r´eseau de trafiquants a ´et´e d´emantel´e (dismantled); Le cambrioleur a crochet´e (picked) la serrure; Le daim a une fourrure rousse tachet´ee de blanc (speckled with white); Une truite mouchet´ee (speckled), un cheval mouchet´e (dappled), une reliure en veau mouchet´e (flecked). In the Rectifications de l’orthographe of 1990, the Acad´emie franc¸aise suggests, but no more than that, the extension of the open e to a grave accent (`e) to all verbs ending in –eler and –eter, save for the following verbs: appeler, rappeler and jeter and their compounds. Of course, this resolves nothing. Grammarians do not all agree over the choice of the doubling of consonants, or one consonant or consonants followed by an accent. Grevisse and Goosse refer to Littr´e in this context. What is certain is that the choice makes no difference to the pronunciation. In popular speech (R1), there is a compression of the es, as in: T’ach`eteras > ach`et’ras la voiture demain ?; Elle ´etait bourrel´ee > bourl´ee de remords (racked with remorse).
32 Transitive and intransitive verbs / Les verbes transitifs et intransitifs 32.1 Transitive verbs A transitive verb has a subject –an actor who or which acts directly upon some person or thing – and an object – someone or something that suffers the action of the subject. The object is often expressed or the verb ceases to be transitive. This comment applies to both French and English. Thus in Je vois la maison (I see the house), vois is a transitive verb because it has an object: maison. Examples of other verbs used transitively, and there are innumerable verbs that may be used in this way, are: Il lit le journal. Elle conduit la voiture. Il pr´epare le repas.
He reads the newspaper. She drives the car. He prepares the meal.
Je vois le film.
I see the movie.
Je visite la ville. Ils prennent l’avion.
I visit the town. They catch the airplane.
32.2 Intransitive verbs If the verb does not have a direct object, it is used intransitively: Marine court/marche tous les jours. ` Rome. On va a On vient souvent ici. Les enfants nagent dans la rivi`ere. Le soleil brille. L’herbe pousse.
Marine runs/walks every day. We are going to Rome. We come here frequently. The children swim in the river. The sun shines/is shining. The grass grows/is growing.
As seen in the first four examples, an intransitive verb may be further extended by means of adverbial expressions of manner, time or place, but this does not amount to supplying the verb with an object. Here is a small list of other verbs used intransitively: bouger, dormir, ´eternuer, mourir, naˆıtre, pˆ alir, pleurer, rester, rire, rougir, sommeiller, souffrir, tousser, vivre. Note, however, that bouger can be used transitively in familiar ` bouger la table ? language: Tu peux m’aider a 308
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Most verbs of movement are used intransitively: aller, arriver, avancer, courir, entrer, marcher, partir, reculer, rentrer, retourner, sortir, venir. Attention ! La voiture recule. ` dix-sept heures. Le train est parti a
Careful! The car’s reversing. The train left at five o’clock.
Aller is a special case in that it is always followed by a complement of place: ` la banque / a ` la piscine / au bureau; although this is not very Adrienne va a apparent in J’y vais. Contrary to expectation in the English-speaking world, entrer is also used transitively, although ins´era may be more common in the first example: L’infirmi`ere entra l’aiguille dans la veine. Les ouvriers ont entr´e le meuble par la fenˆetre.
The nurse inserted the needle in the vein. The workmen put the piece of furniture through the window.
Particularly common is its use with computers: Tu entres les donn´ees en m´emoire.
You put the data into the memory.
Some French grammarians argue for a further class of verbs, a kind of intermediary group. They call them indirect transitive verbs. Delatour, in the Hachette grammar, and Hanse and Blampain promote this category, ` referring to verbs such as ob´eir and nuire which attract the preposition a before a noun or pronoun. Grevisse and Goosse do not accept this grouping (2008, p. 321), neither do the present authors, since it engenders an unnecessary complication.
32.3 Uses of transitive or intransitive verbs In English, most verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. However, in French, they oscillate less frequently from one variety to the other. If we take the use of a transitive verb in English, The man opens the door, we discover that the verb to open may be used intransitively: The door opens. Although the French equivalent ouvrir is often only used transitively (L’homme ouvre la porte), it cannot be used in an intransitive way unless it becomes reflexive (see Chapter 33) or refers to a repeated or customary action. However, before further analysis, one would do well to consider how the two French verbs descendre and monter may be used transitively and intransitively. By comparing the transitive and intransitive uses of descendre and monter, the differences stand out more clearly:
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Transitive use Ir`ene descend les escaliers. Ir`ene goes down the stairs. Descends/Monte les livres, s’il te plaˆıt. Bring down/up the books, please. C´eline monte les escaliers. C´eline goes up the stairs. Elle a mont´e les fauteuils avec une poulie. She sent up the armchairs with a pulley.
Intransitive use Ir`ene descend de la montagne. Ir`ene goes down from the mountain. Les prix montent/descendent. Prices are going down/up. C´eline monte au premier ´etage. C´eline goes up to the first floor. La temp´erature monte. The temperature’s going up.
In the first case of transitive verbs, descendre has an object, escaliers, whereas in the first case of intransitive verbs, the noun montagne is not the object of descendre since it is preceded by a preposition, and produces an adverbial expression of place. In the second case, livres is the complement or direct object of descend, while the sentence Les prix montent/descendent has no direct object and stands by itself to convey a full meaning. It becomes obvious that a transitive verb usually requires an object to provide a proper meaning to the sentence, while this is not the case for intransitive verbs. Indeed, intransitive verbs do not take an object at all – otherwise, they cease to be intransitive verbs and become transitive. Returning to the case of ouvrir, above, and here we include fermer: these verbs may be used intransitively when something occurs habitually: ` neuf Les magasins ouvrent a heures. ` dix-neuf Les magasins ferment a heures.
The shops open at nine o’clock. The shops close at seven.
The reflexive form would not be used here. At the same time, one could say both: La porte ouvre/ferme bien and: La porte s’ouvre/se ferme bien. Compare the intransitive application here to the following reflexive use (see also Chapter 33 for a fuller treatment of reflexive verbs): Attention ! La porte se ferme/s’ouvre !
Careful! The door is closing/opening!
Se could not be omitted here, since the verb reflects something precise, imminent and active. The concept of habitual occurrence also affects the verb s’arrˆeter: Les cars s’arrˆetent toujours ici.
The buses/coaches always stop here.
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The non-reflexive form cannot be used here. Also: La voiture s’est arrˆet´ee tout d’un coup.
The car stopped immediately (i.e., on one occasion).
Similarly, driving an automobile, the decision to stop would involve the reflexive: Allez, il y a une station service. Je vais m’arrˆeter.
Right, there’s a gas station. I’m going to stop.
Many transitive verbs can stand freely by themselves and do not require a direct object. Such is also the case in English: Marie va chanter. J’ai vu que Jeanne ´ecrivait. “Qu’est-ce que Philippe fait ?” “Il mange/boit.” J’attends/´ecoute/ob´eis.
Marie is going to sing. I saw that Jeanne was writing. “What’s Philippe doing?” “He’s eating/drinking.” I am waiting/listening/obeying.
Compare also the transitive and intransitive uses of conduire, and the tenses: ` la Le chemin nous a conduits a fontaine. ` la Le chemin conduisait a fontaine.
The path led us to the fountain (i.e., on one occasion). The path led to the fountain (i.e., always).
As in English, certain intransitive verbs may take what is called a “cognate object”: one that is allied to, or related in meaning to, the verb. In this case, they function transitively: Sabrina pleura des larmes de joie. Adeline pleure la mort de son p`ere. Je veux vivre ma vie. On a v´ecu des heures de joie. Elle dort son dernier sommeil. Il joue gros jeu.
Sabrina wept tears of joy. Adeline weeps over the death of her father. I want to live my life. We lived joyous moments. She is sleeping her last sleep (She has died). He’s betting a lot.
Notice these expressions: courir un danger / un risque / sa chance / la ville / les ˆtres / les bals / les filles / les jupons; parler affaires / plusieurs rues / le monde / les th´ea langues / politique / chiffons (to talk fashion).
32.4 Verbs that may be used transitively and intransitively As stated above, some French verbs have the two values. Here is a small list of verbs that function in both ways:
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blanchir
bleuir brunir grandir jaunir
mˆ urir
Transitive La neige blanchit les sommets. La poudre lui blanchit le visage. Le froid lui bleuit le visage. Le soleil lui a bruni la peau. Le microscope grandit les objets. L’automne a jauni les feuilles. Elle a les doigts jaunis par la nicotine. Pour mˆ urir le raisin il nous faut du soleil mais un peu de pluie aussi. Mˆ urir une pens´ee.
noircir
La fum´ee a noirci les murs.
rajeunir
Je suis maintenant grand-p`ere, voil` a qui me rajeunit. La distance rapetisse les objets. J´esus ressuscita Lazare; Cette bonne nouvelle l’a ressuscit´ee. Le froid a rosi ses joues.
rapetisser ressusciter
rosir verdir vieillir
Le peintre a verdi les portes du garage. Cette coiffure la vieillit. Je n’ai que quarante-neuf ans, vous me vieillissez d’un an !
Intransitive Ses cheveux blanchissent. Elle a blanchi de peur. La cˆ ote bleuissait au loin. ` la Qu’est-ce qu’on a bruni a mer ! Il a grandi, le petit ! ` Les feuilles commencent a jaunir. Le papier peint a jauni. Les bl´es mˆ urissent aux champs. Ces adolescentes ont mˆ uri, elles sont plus raisonnables. La cerise mˆ urit, noircit et tombe. Marie a drˆ olement rajeuni apr`es l’op´eration. Mon pantalon a rapetiss´e au lavage. Les morts ressuscitent (Matthew 11: 5 and Luke 7: 22). Ses joues rosissent d’excitation. ` Les arbres se mettent a verdir. Les adultes aimeraient bien arrˆeter de vieillir. Ce sujet n’a pas vieilli, il est toujours d’actualit´e.
Tomber also falls into this category. Used intransitively, it is standard R2 language (to fall): La neige est tomb´ee pendant sept heures / Les feuilles sont tomb´ees / Elle est tomb´ee amoureuse. But in R1 language it can be used transitively. The first example is typical, while the second and third are less used: Qu’est-ce qu’il fait chaud, les gars ! Allez, on tombe la veste; Il a tomb´e l’adversaire d’un coup de poing; Don Juan ne pensait qu’` a tomber (seduce) une femme apr`es l’autre.
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As an intransitive verb, ressusciter is conjugated with ˆetre: “J´esus est ressuscit´e pour notre justification” (“Jesus was raised from the dead for our justification,” Romans 4: 25). In many of these cases, whereas the French verb may be used transitively, the English equivalent cannot. This is especially true of verbs of color, like bleuir, rosir and verdir which require the verb to make or to turn. Grandir, rapetisser and vieillir also require an auxiliary verb in English to convey the transitive idea. The converse is also true. Some English verbs, when used transitively, like to boil, to enrage and to explode, require the auxiliary faire in French: faire bouillir/enrager/exploser, although bouillir may be used transitively in a low register. Interestingly enough, enrager can only be used intransitively in French, whereas in English to enrage is only used transitively.
32.5 Transitive verbs and the passive voice In principle, only transitive verbs may be used in a passive way. This applies to English and to all Romance languages, including French. The explanation is simple enough. The direct object of the active agent becomes the subject in the passive construction. In reality, only avoir, comporter, pouvoir and valoir have no passive application. The passive voice is composed of the verb ˆetre, while there is always agreement between the past participle and the subject of the verb: La dame a ouvert la porte > La porte a ´et´e ouverte par la dame; On interrogea l’accus´ee > L’accus´ee fut interrog´ee. Although ob´eir, d´esob´eir and pardonner take an indirect object introduced `, and are therefore not true transitive verbs, they may all three be used by a in the passive voice, notably the first and the last: Je veux ˆetre ob´ei / J’aime toujours me voir ob´eie / Votre Altesse sera ob´eie; Vous ˆetes pardonn´ees / La coupable ` ˆetre d´esob´eis. a ´et´e pardonn´ee de ses m´efaits; Ils s’attendent a
33 Reflexive verbs / Les verbes pronominaux The following passage describes the delights experienced by a group of friends who visit the Lake District in England for the first time. Lakes, mountains, sundowns and wildlife all fill the friends with admiration for an exquisite corner of the English countryside. Note the constant use of reflexive verbs, particularly when they occur in the perfect tense or the conditional perfect, since here agreement in number and gender of the past participle is imperative. The reflexive verbs are all highlighted in bold. Some translations are offered. La r´egion des lacs Je me souviens d’un extraordinaire s´ejour dans la r´egion des lacs connue en anglais sous l’appellation The Lake District. Je ne peux m’empˆ echer [I cannot help] de songer au po`eme de Lamartine « Le Lac ». Les plus grands po`etes se sont inspir´es des vastes ´etendues [expanses] des lacs et des montagnes. William Wordsworth et bien d’autres po`etes se d´electaient [reveled in] de cette r´egion exceptionnelle. Nous avons parcouru avec un groupe d’amis cette r´egion naturelle dans tout l’´eclat ` l’id´ee de sa beaut´e. Nous nous sommes r´ejouis [We delighted in] a d’explorer les chemins escarp´es [steep] de grandes randonn´ees, les massifs montagneux, la faune, la flore, les petits chˆ ateaux anciens en pleine nature surplombant [overhanging] les lacs. Nos amis se sont bien amus´es en plein air en se promenant en bordure des lacs ´etincelants. La temp´erature ambiante ´etait d´elicieuse mais pas au point de se baigner dans les eaux fraˆıches de ces lacs de montagne. Notre excursion de plusieurs jours nous a fait d´ecouvrir l’accueil chaleureux des montagnards britanniques. Audrey, notre amie, se levait tr`es tˆ ot le matin. Elle se lavait pour lib´erer la salle de bains pour les ` pr´eparer les corv´ees de la journ´ee autres convives. Elle se fatiguait a pour le confort de ses hˆ otes. Audrey s’approchait des invit´es le matin pour leur servir un petit-d´ejeuner compos´e de pain grill´e tout chaud, de marmelade d’oranges, de beurre onctueux sans oublier la fameuse bouillie de flocons d’avoine [porridge]. Aid´es de son ´epoux William, ils ` la table de la grande salle a ` manger pour achever les s’asseyaient a pr´eparatifs de notre voyage organis´e.
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Le couple se couchait toujours tr`es tard apr`es une longue journ´ee de ` port´ee de main travail. William ne s’ennuyait jamais. Il avait toujours a son appareil photo ou son cam´escope [camcorder] pour prendre subrepticement [surrepticiously/secretly] un magnifique coucher de soleil ou un ciel charg´e de nuages qui s’amoncelaient [piled up]. Il s’extasiait devant le ciel en lanc¸ant : « What a dramatic sky tonight ! » Audrey se glissait dans son fauteuil pour admirer, de la grande baie vitr´ee, le paysage qui s’offrait au regard. Si nous ´etions rest´es plus longtemps dans la ` admirer les couchers r´egion, nous nous serions amus´es davantage a ` partager les mˆemes activit´es intellectuelles, manuelles et de soleil et a sportives. Audrey et William se sont connus [came to know each other] ` Florence et ne se sont jamais quitt´es. Ce couple illustre parfaitea ment le proverbe « Birds of a feather flock together ! » c’est-` a-dire : « Qui s’assemble se ressemble » ou encore « Les oiseaux d’un mˆeme plumage se rassemblent sur le mˆeme rivage ».
A transitive verb is called reflexive or pronominal when its action returns upon the actor, in other words, when the subject and object are identical. A reflexive verb is a kind of transitive verb because it does have a direct object. Although reflexive verbs exist in English, it is possible in most cases not to use them. For example, an English speaker would much more easily say I wash this morning than I wash myself this morning. However, in French, as with other Romance languages, this is not the case. If one said Je lave ce matin, a French speaker would wonder what was being washed – the car, clothes, sheets . . . If you wanted to say that you were actually washing yourself, you would need to use a reflexive pronoun with the verb laver. So the me of me lave is most necessary if you want to be clear about what is being washed – in this case, you. Whatever the form of the subject, and whether expressed or not, the object is always a pronoun, is always expressed, and always agrees in person and number with the verb (see Chapter 45 on personal pronouns). The usual position of the pronominal object or pronoun object is immediately before the verb or the auxiliary verb, or attached enclitically to the positive imperative. The following pattern of the verb se baigner (to have a swim) will serve for all tenses and combinations: je me baigne (I swim), tu te baignes (you swim), il/elle se baigne (he/she swims), nous nous baignons, vous vous baignez, ils/elles se baignent. Here are just a few common verbs used reflexively and non-reflexively with basically the same meaning: Non-reflexive use approcher asseoir coucher
to bring closer to sit (someone) to put to bed
Reflexive use s’approcher s’asseoir se coucher
to get closer to sit (oneself) down to go to bed
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Non-reflexive use crevasser d´echirer ennuyer fˆ acher fatiguer fendiller fermer gercer laver moucher mouiller ouvrir perdre promener raser r´ejouir r´eveiller
to cause to crack to tear to bore to make cross to tire to split to close/shut to chap to wash to wipe (a nose) to wet to open to lose to take for a walk to shave (someone) to make happy to wake (someone) up
Reflexive use se crevasser se d´echirer s’ennuyer se fˆ acher se fatiguer se fendiller se fermer se gercer se laver se moucher se mouiller s’ouvrir se perdre se promener se raser se r´ejouir se r´eveiller
to crack, to chap to tear/get torn to get bored to get cross to get tired to split to close/shut to chap to wash to wipe (one’s nose) to get wet to open to get lost to go for a walk to shave oneself to cheer up to wake up
A great number of verbs may be used reflexively in this way, and it would serve little purpose to attempt a comprehensive list. Examples of verbs used reflexively and non-reflexively are: Approche la chaise, s’il te plaˆıt. Je m’approche de la fenˆetre. Cela me fˆ ache de voir un tel d´esordre. Si tu continues je vais me fˆ acher. La m`ere a mouch´e la petite. Mouche-toi, petit. ´milie s’est mouch´ee E bruyamment. J’ai perdu la balle. On s’est perdu dans le bois. Je vais promener le chien. Jeanne et son mari se prom`enent. Marie couche/asseoit la petite. ` vingt-deux Sophie se couche a heures. Je me suis assise dans le fauteuil.
Bring the chair closer, please. I move closer to the window. It makes me angry to see this mess. If you go on, I’ll get angry. The mother wiped the child’s nose. Blow your nose. ´ Emilie made a noise blowing her nose. I lost the ball. We got lost in the wood. I’m going to take the dog for a walk. Jeanne and her husband are out for a walk. Marie puts her daughter to bed/on a chair. Sophie goes to bed at ten. I sat in the armchair.
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Some verbs may be used reflexively and non-reflexively with very little difference in meaning: La fille a recul´e / s’est recul´ee de quelques m`etres. ` Les cours (se) terminent a dix-sept heures. Je (m)’imagine que Laurent est rentr´e.
The girl withdrew a few yards. Classes end at five. I imagine Laurent’s come back.
However, there are a number of verbs the values of which change considerably when used reflexively or non-reflexively. Here is a list of very common verbs used in these two different ways, with specific comments. Generally speaking, the reflexive form carries more weight, is more specific and active and, in all cases, contains an intransitive use: Comment unintentional
Verb approcher
deliberate habitual
s’approcher fermer/ouvrir
specific state action state action
se fermer/ s’ouvrir coucher se coucher arrˆeter s’arrˆeter
state action abstract concrete less strong stronger
loger. se loger incliner s’incliner attaquer s’attaquer
figurative literal
pencher se pencher
Example Maman approche de la quarantaine. L’heure du d´epart approche. L’ennemi s’approchait de la ville. ` dix-huit heures. Les magasins ferment a ` neuf heures. Les magasins ouvrent a La porte se fermait / s’ouvrait lentement. ` l’hˆotel / a ` la belle ´etoile. Je couche a Je suis crev´e. Je vais me coucher. Audrey a arrˆet´e de fumer (for good). Philippe s’est arrˆet´e de fumer (now, and for good); Arrˆete ! = stop it ! La voiture s’est brusquement arrˆet´ee. Tu loges o` u ? Je loge en ville. ` l’hˆotel. Annick est arriv´ee et s’est log´ee a ` penser que tout ira bien. J’incline a Le prˆetre s’est inclin´e devant l’autel. Le conseiller a attaqu´e le gouvernement. Les terroristes se sont attaqu´es au parlement. Attaquer and s’attaquer are interchangeable here, given the comments. The same goes for: `, refuser de / se d´ecider de / se d´ecider a `, r´esoudre de / se r´esoudre a `. refuser a Je penche pour la seconde hypoth`ese. D´efense de se pencher par la porti`ere. Armelle s’est pench´ee sur l’eau.
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Comment figurative
Verb reposer
literal
se reposer
Example Sa philosophie repose sur trois principes. Son corps repose au cimeti`ere du P`ere Lachaise. Je suis fatigu´ee. Je vais me reposer un peu.
Note: plaindre = to pity but se plaindre = to complain. Also, marier = to marry (someone to someone else), whereas se marier = to get married: Le cur´e les maria Ils se sont mari´es
The priest married them. They got married.
One hears and reads more and more these days se pacser deriving from pacte civil de solidarit´e = civil partnership, introduced into France in 1999, and this verb applies to all types of marriage: Elles se sont pacs´ees = They got married (i.e., two females). Of interest is the ironic play on words with this verb accessible perhaps only to latinistes: pax (Latin for peace). The following three sets of verbs illustrate the difference between the literal use of the non-reflexive verb and the figurative use of the reflexive: Literal (non-reflexive) Sabrina a figur´e dans la c´er´emonie. Le nom de Sophie ne figure pas sur la liste Son fr`ere est pass´e cette apr`es-midi. Ils sont tous sortis ce matin
Figurative (reflexive) Je me figure les choses autrement qu’elles ne sont. Je me le figurais couch´e, malade. Tu ne peux pas te figurer comme il est bˆete. Qu’est-ce qui s’est pass´e ? ` m’en sortir / me J’arrive pas a sortir de cette pagaille (get myself out of this mess).
Some verbs only have a reflexive form, and here the reflexive pronoun adds nothing to the meaning. At the same time, the reflexive must be used: s’absenter, s’abstenir, s’accouder, s’accroupir, s’acharner (` a), s’adonner (` a), s’arroger (R3), s’attabler, s’aventurer (rarely non-reflexive), se bagarrer, se blottir, se chamailler, se d´edire, se d´electer (` a), se d´emener, se d´esister, s’´ecrier, s’´ecrouler, s’effondrer, s’efforcer, s’emparer (de), s’empresser, s’en aller, s’enqu´erir, s’´eprendre (de), s’´evader, s’´evanouir, s’´evertuer, s’exclamer, s’extasier, se fier, se gargariser, s’ing´enier, s’insurger, se m´efier (de), se m´eprendre (R3), se morfondre, se moquer (de), `, se pˆ s’opiniˆ atrer a amer, se prosterner (rarely non-reflexive), se quereller (rarely non-reflexive), se raviser, se rebeller, se rebiffer, se regimber, se r´ecrier, se r´efugier, se rengorger, se repentir, se r´evolter, se souvenir (de), se suicider, se tapir. Conversely, there are many verbs that are not used reflexively, and these are by their very nature and meaning intransitive: blˆemir, brouter (although: Les moutons broutaient l’herbe), croˆıtre, d´ecliner, demeurer, dormir, empirer (rarely
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used in the reflexive), ´eternuer, mourir,1 naˆıtre, pacager, paˆıtre, pˆ alir, penser,2 progresser, prosp´erer, renifler, r´etrograder, ronfler, souffrir, tomber, tousser. Verbs used only non-reflexively include those of color, although these may be used transitively: blanchir, bleuir, brunir, jaunir, rosir, verdir: noircir, however, may be reflexive: se noircir. As seen above, reflexive verbs are really those verbs whose direct or indirect object refers back, via a pronoun, to the subject of the same verb. However, this is by no means always the case. A reflexive verb can also suggest actions that two or more individuals perform with respect to one another: Les garc¸ons se cherchaient dans les t´en`ebres. Tous les joueurs de l’´equipe s’appr´ecient beaucoup. Jean et Marie s’envoient des textos tous les jours. Ils se trompent. Nous nous f´elicitons. Nous nous sommes longuement f´elicit´es. Les deux amants se sont regard´es pendant quelques instants. Les sinistr´es se sont aid´es.
The boys looked for each other in the darkness. All the team players appreciate each other a great deal. Jean and Marie send each other text messages every day. They deceive themselves / one another. We congratulate each other. We congratulate each other at length. The two lovers looked at each other for a few moments. The accident victims helped each other.
Sometimes, a reinforcing expression is used to make the meaning clearer, and there are quite a few of these: Aidons-nous mutuellement. Les ´epoux se d´etestaient mutuellement. Les amis se rendaient r´eciproquement de grands services. 1
Let us help each other. Husband and wife loathed each other. The friends obliged each other.
Se mourir is sometimes used in a literary context and clearly has an R3 flavor. It conveys the idea of “about to die.” Le roi/La reine se mourait.
The king/queen was about to die.
This literary application may also mean to end, to decline: Le soir se mourait.
2
The evening was fading away.
This reflexive use does not allow compound tenses for obvious reasons: One is about to die or one is dead. Croire has a similar meaning to penser, but it can easily be reflexive: Il se croit tout permis; Il se croit plus fort/intelligent.
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Les loups ne se mangent pas entre eux. Les trois femmes se sont entraid´ees pour repeindre la maison. Tous les soldats se sont regard´es les uns les autres. Ils se lavent eux-mˆemes.
Les enfants n’ont pas besoin ` d’aide. Ils se suffisent a eux-mˆemes.
Honor among thieves (proverb). The three women helped each other to repaint the house. All the soldiers looked at each other. They wash themselves (Here, themselves would suit as a translation). The children don’t need any help. They are self-sufficient.
Although a plurality of individuals is logically suggested in the examples above, a singular noun or pronoun is quite possible with the same idea: On se croisait souvent et je ne la reconnaissais pas. On s’embrasse tous les jours en France, et mˆeme plusieurs fois ! Chacun se saluait sur la plage. Tout un chacun s’entend pour ´eviter d’en parler. Dans cette communaut´e, tout le monde s’aime. Qui se ressemble s’assemble.
We often passed each other and I didn’t recognize her. We kiss each other every day in France, and even several times! Everyone greeted each other on the beach. Each one agrees not to speak about it. In this community, everyone likes/loves each other. Birds of a feather flock together.
It happens that a logically reciprocal action is presented from an individual’s point of view, so that the other person appears in the complement introduced with avec or contre. Verbs here would include: se battre, se croiser, s’entendre, se disputer, s’engueuler (R1), se quereller, se rencontrer, se trouver. ` coups de S´ebastien s’est battu a poings avec/contre le voyou. Tu t’es crois´ee avec mon p`ere hier ? Pourquoi s’est-elle querell´ee avec son fr`ere ? Marcel s’entend bien/mal avec Louise. David a encore dˆ u s’engueuler avec la contractuelle.
S´ebastien had a fist fight with the hoodlum. Did you pass my father yesterday? Why did she have a quarrel with her brother? Marcel gets on well / does not get on well with Louise. David must have had an argument again with the parking warden.
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The reflexive is also used in an impersonal way. This feature needs to be turned in English by a straight intransitive or passive verb: Ce livre se vend comme des petits pains. C ¸ a s’ach`ete au march´e. Il se pr´epare actuellement une nouvelle ´edition. Il se produit une r´eaction chimique. Il ne se trouvait pas de linguiste pour traduire le document. Le clocher s’aperc¸oit de loin. C’est une expression qui s’entend partout. Tu sais bien que ¸ca ne se dit pas.
This book sells like hot cakes. You can buy that / That can be bought at the market. A new edition is currently being prepared. A chemical reaction is produced / There is a chemical reaction. You couldn’t find a linguist to translate the document. The steeple can be seen from afar. It’s an expression heard everywhere. You know very well that’s not said / we don’t say that.
Note also in this context the common reflexive use of the verb agir: Il s’agit dans ce livre des origines de la R´evolution. De quoi s’agissait-il ? Il s’agira de partir d`es que possible. S’agissant de vous, nous n’insisterons pas. S’agissant d’un d´epart imminent, elle a d´ecid´e de ` une date reporter son travail a ult´erieure.
This book treats the origins of the Revolution. What was it about? It’ll be a question of leaving as soon as possible. As far as you’re concerned, we won’t insist. Since it was a question of an imminent departure, she decided to delay her work to a later date.
This last expression has gained much ground in the twentieth century. Grammatically it is not convincing, but one may advocate a kind of absolute meaning for it. Certain reflexive verbs have a pronoun without any apparent logical function. The pronoun which merely reflects the subject plays no true role either as a direct or as an indirect object: s’en aller, se douter (de), s’´ecrier, s’emparer (de), s’endormir, s’enfuir, s’ensuivre, s’envoler, s’´evanouir, se jouer (de), se moquer (de), se mourir, se pˆ amer, se pr´evaloir (de), se repentir (de), s’en retourner, s’en revenir, se rire (de), se soucier (de), se taire: Ir`ene s’est aperc¸ue de son erreur. Henri s’est repenti de sa faute. La malade s’est ´evanouie.
Ir`ene realized her error. Henri repented of his error. The patient fainted.
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En 1453, les Turcs s’empar`erent de Constantinople.
In 1453, the Turks took over Constantinople.
The reflexive pronoun may be direct or indirect. Compare the two sentences: Audrey se lave soigneusement. Audrey se lave soigneusement les dents.
Audrey washes carefully. Audrey cleans her teeth carefully.
In the first case, se is a direct object, while in the second se is an indirect object, since les dents is the direct object. Compare two further examples: Jean s’est coup´e en se rasant. Jean s’est coup´e le menton en se rasant.
Jean cut himself while shaving. Jean cut his chin while shaving.
In the first case, the direct object is s(e), and in the second, it is le menton, and s(e) becomes the indirect object. In the present tense, this nice difference is of no real importance, but in all compound tenses (see next item below), it is fundamental since agreement of the past participle with the preceding direct object comes into play. Compare again: Audrey s’est lav´ee avec soin. Audrey s’est lav´e les mains avec soin.
Audrey washed carefully. Audrey washed her hands carefully.
Agreement in case one between lav´ee and Audrey is necessary, while there is no agreement in case two. Similarly: Les deux garc¸ons se sont gifl´es. Les deux garc¸ons se sont donn´e des gifles.
The two boys hit each other. The two boys gave each other blows (or in better English: hit each other).
Gifl´es agrees in case one (se is direct) but not in case two where se is indirect. Finally, in this context of agreement in compound tenses, se blesser and se nuire offer a striking contrast, since they both mean to hurt oneself. The verb blesser normally takes the direct object, while nuire takes an indirect object. A translation of She hurt herself could be Elle s’est bless´ee or Elle s’est nui (i.e., agreement in bless´ee and no agreement in nui). Use of the reflexive with parts of the body involves the definite article where in English a possessive adjective would occur: Louise s’est cass´e la jambe. Franc¸oise s’est fait mal au genou.
Louise broke her leg. Franc¸oise hurt her knee.
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If two verbs used reflexively follow each other, the reflexive pronoun is usually repeated: Les deux cousins se ha¨ıssaient et se craignaient.
The two cousins both hated and feared each other.
But in a literary context, the pronoun may disappear: Il se carrait et cambrait pour se ` la lutte. pr´eparer a
He tensed himself and arched his back to face the struggle.
The use of Je m’excuse (I’m sorry / Excuse me) instead of Excusez-moi has caused much ink to flow. Rather than spill even more ink, suffice it to say that the reflexive use here is very idiomatic and common. The following table illustrates how the full conjugation of a reflexive verb functions. Of particular note are the agreements in the compound tenses which are conjugated with ˆetre and where agreement of the subject and the past participle is of paramount importance (see also above): infinitive past infinitive participles present indicative perfect indicative
imperfect preterit future conditional conditional in past present subjunctive perfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive pluperfect subjunctive imperative
se laver = to wash (oneself) s’ˆetre lav´e/lav´ee/lav´es/lav´ees present: se lavant; past: lav´e/lav´ee/lav´es/lav´ees je me lave, tu te laves, il/elle se lave, nous nous lavons, vous vous lavez, ils/elles se lavent je me suis lav´e(e), tu t’es lav´e(e), il s’est lav´e, elle s’est lav´ee, nous nous sommes lav´e(e)s, vous vous ˆetes lav´e(e)(s) ils se sont lav´es/elles se sont lav´ees je me lavais, tu te lavais, etc. je me lavai, tu te lavas, etc. je me laverai, tu te laveras, etc. je me laverais, tu te laverais, etc. je me serais lav´e(e), tu te serais lav´e(e), etc. je me lave, tu te laves, etc. je me sois lav´e(e), tu te sois lav´e(e), etc. je me lavasse, tu te lavasses, etc. je me fusse lav´e(e), tu te fusses lav´e(e), etc. lave-toi, lavons-nous, lavez-vous
The use of reflexive verbs in Belgium, Quebec and Switzerland differs at times from usage in metropolitan France: s’accaparer de (to monopolize): In both Belgium and Quebec, this verb may be reflexive with de, not so in metropolitan France: Ottawa ne cherche ` s’accaparer du plus grand nombre de comp´etences possibles. pas a s’aider: In Switzerland, this use is commonnly used as follows: Les classes campagnardes se ferment pour quinze jours afin que les ´ecoliers puissent s’aider ` planter des pommes de terre. a
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Se glisser is also common currency in Switzerland with the meaning of to slide. Ramuz, the Swiss novelist, writes: Une de ses petites sœurs ´etait tomb´ee en se glissant sur la glace. Se glisser would be used in France with the idea of to slip (into/under): Elle s’est gliss´ee dans ses draps/sous la barri`ere. Grevisse and Goosse underline the very considerable use of what they term “superfluous reflexives” in the Midi (southern France). They quote (2008, pp. 997–998): se languir, se penser, s’accompagner avec, se manger une salade / un morceau (to have a salad/bite to eat), se signer au nom des ´etudiants, s’obtenir un diplˆome. The use of the reflexive is particularly noticeable with manger in the Midi, and elsewhere, although the other examples cited above come as a surprise to speakers of standard French. This does not surprise one of the authors who compares this usage to the extremely widespread and apparently superfluous application of the reflexive in Spain: pensarse, comerse, creerse, obtenerse and so on. Grevisse and Goosse also quote the opposite in Belgium, and in various parts of France as well as in the Midi, i.e. non-use of the reflexive where the present authors, for instance, would normally expect and use the reflexive: gargariser (Belgium), promener (to go for a walk; used in the Midi), baigner (to go for a swim), marier (to get married) (both these latter in Normandy and the former in Alsace), and d´epˆecher, as in: D´epˆeche(z) ! (Hurry up!), which is colloquial in many parts of France, as is Allez, grouille ! (R1 = Get a move on!). The plural form grouillez does not seem to be used. Of these, only promener, d´epˆecher and grouiller gain real acceptance outside the regions referred to, and are certainly heard elsewhere.
34 Passive voice / La voix passive
The passage below evokes the harsh yet enchanting frozen wastes of Greenland, a Denmark possession, and commands attention by virtue of our pressing current need to protect this environment. It focuses on the animal kingdom, notably that of the penguin. The passage illustrates the use of the passive voice, including reflexive verbs, which are partially passive in idea. These reflexive verbs are marked with an asterisk. Note that, as with all Romance languages, the past participle here agrees in gender and number with the subject. No agreement exists, however, with propos´e since the reflexive involves an indirect object: nous. A few translations are provided. Vol au-dessus du Groenland Nous avons ´et´e transport´es dans l’Arctique au cours de notre long voy` survoler a ` basse altitude age. Nous nous sommes laiss´es∗ surprendre a le Groenland. Des vues panoramiques ont ´et´ e comment´ ees par une ` regarder par voix vibrante. Nous avons ´et´e invit´es par les hˆ otesses a le hublot les habitants de l’arctique vˆetus d’un plumage blanc et noir. Une sorte de fascination a ´et´e exerc´ee par ces oiseaux marins. Les manchots [penguins] se promenaient tranquillement sur la banquise [ice ` bord de l’appareil se sont trouv´ floe]. Les passagers a es∗ dans une sorte d’extase. Jusqu’au milieu des ann´ees soixante dix, des exp´editions ont ´ et´ e organis´ees au Groenland par l’explorateur franc¸ais Paul-Emile Victor. Les exp´editions polaires franc¸aises ont ´et´ e incarn´ ees par l’ethnologue qui d´ecouvrit le Groenland dans les ann´ees trente. Les gouvernements ` prot´eger l’Arctique des dommages qui ont ´ ont ´et´e incit´es a et´ e subis par la d´egradation de l’environnement au niveau de la plan`ete. Les hommes politiques se sont propos´e∗ de relever le d´efi dans la lutte contre le changement climatique. Les partenaires europ´eens se sont ` sauvegarder l’environnement dans l’Arctique. Des stations engag´es∗ a d’observations polaires ont ´et´e d´eploy´ees dans cette vaste ´etendue pour la recherche scientifique. Notre aventure dans cette r´egion polaire du nord ´evoque une image tr`es forte. On ne peut s’empˆecher [One cannot help] de faire un parall`ele avec le film documentaire de Luc Jacquet, La Marche de l’empereur. Pour
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la survie de l’esp`ece, des centaines de kilom`etres sont parcourus par le manchot empereur [Emperor penguin]. La plus belle des histoires a ´et´ e invent´ ee par la nature. La protection de l’environnement a ´et´ e symbolis´ee par ce documentaire. Ce film est une lec¸on magistrale [masterly] sur le courage, la force et la solidarit´e d’une communaut´e animale dans un d´esert de glace et de neige qui doit ˆetre prot´ eg´ ee. De nombreux ouvrages de vulgarisation ont ´ et´ e´ ecrits par le pionnier des exp´editions polaires franc¸aises. Son journal de bord [logbook] qui a ´et´e r´edig´e au cours de son ann´ee pass´ee au Groenland seul parmi les Esquimaux est un r´ecit passionnant. Ce patrimoine exceptionnel de notre plan`ete a bien des attraits. Cette ˆıle strat´egique de l’Arctique sous l’h´eg´emonie du Danemark est regard´ ee avec convoitise [jealously]. Notre courte aventure au-dessus de la banquise a r´ealis´e un tr`es beau rˆeve.
The term voice applies to the forms that a verb assumes to express the role of the subject in an action or thought. Voice also involves the unfolding of this action or thought. Two distinctions are possible: Active voice: This indicates that the subject performs the action: Le chien conduit l’aveugle. Passive voice: This indicates that the subject undergoes the action: L’aveugle est conduit par le chien. In principle, one can turn any transitive verb into the passive if the verb can take a direct object. A second example following on from the example above shows this quite clearly: Le juge interroge l’accus´e > L’accus´e est interrog´e par le juge. It is quite clear that the French passive, as with all Romance languages, is formed in precisely the same way as the English passive: the combination of ˆetre and past participle therefore corresponds to to be and past participle (in Italian essere/stare + past participle; in Spanish ser/estar + past participle). Note that the past participle of ˆetre > ´et´e in compound tenses does not ` stata ferita = She has been hurt), change, although it does in Italian (essere = E but not in Spanish (ser = Ha sido herida = She has been hurt). Here is an example of the verb aimer = to like/love used in a passive way: Indicative mood passive infinitive passive past infinitive passive present participle passive past participle
ˆetre aim´e/aim´ee/aim´es/ aim´ees avoir ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee, etc. ´etant aim´e/aim´ee, etc.
to be liked
aim´e/aim´ee, etc.
(having been) liked
to have been liked being liked
Passive voice passive present
327 je suis aim´e/aim´ee tu es aim´e/aim´ee il est aim´e elle est aim´ee nous sommes aim´e(e)s vous ˆetes aim´e(e)(s) ils sont aim´es elles sont aim´ees
I am liked you are liked he is liked she is liked we are liked you are liked they are liked they are liked
With the remainder of the conjugation of tenses only the first-person form appears: j’´etais aim´e/aim´ee je fus aim´e/aim´ee j’avais ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee j’eus ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee
I was liked I was liked I had been liked I had been liked
je serai aim´e/aim´ee j’aurai ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee
I will be liked I will have been liked
je serais aim´e/aim´ee j’aurais ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee
I would be liked I would have been liked
Subjunctive mood passive present passive perfect
que je sois aim´e/aim´ee que j’aie ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee
passive imperfect passive perfect
que je fusse aim´e/aim´ee que j’aie ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee
passive pluperfect
que j’eusse ´et´e aim´e/aim´ee
that I may be liked that I may have been liked that I might be liked that I may have been liked that I might have been liked
soyons aim´es/aim´ees let us be liked
soyez aim´e(s)/´ee(s) be liked
passive imperfect passive preterit passive pluperfect passive past anterior passive future passive future perfect passive conditional passive conditional in the past
Imperative mood sois aim´e/aim´ee be liked
Some of these forms are so clumsy and out-of-date (the passive imperfect and pluperfect, for instance), that one can only imagine the most punctilious of authors having recourse to them. Chateaubriand would be a good candidate in this respect. Most commentators agree that the passive construction is less frequent in French than other forms carrying out the same role. Grevisse and Goosse (2008, p. 982) support this view, stating unequivocally that other languages use it much more. They do not say which ones, although English certainly
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illustrates a far greater preference for the passive than French does. However, other Romance languages would not fit into the Belgians’ assertion, particularly Spanish, which avoids the passive even more than French. Interestingly enough, Grevisse and Goosse state quite clearly that, in French, “La construction passive [. . .] est acquise plus tard par l’enfant.” Some fieldwork must have been done here but they do not say how they come to this conclusion. It is to be added that French-speaking linguists would doubtless unanimously agree that children do not use the passive very much, instructed as they often are that the passive is a “structure trop lourde.” The fact that children come later to the passive construction makes an eloquent statement over the possible awkwardness of its manipulation. However, there are certain set and common formulae which involve the passive voice. A student could easily say of the benefits of living in a cit´e ` la cit´e universitaire. A soldier could universitaire: Je suis nourri, blanchi et log´e a use the same formula when speaking of his regiment, although he may drop the log´e since this is understood. An advertisement for an au pair could similarly read: Recherche une fille au pair, nourrie et blanchie. In support of the lack of frequency of the passive in French, one may cite the two following alternatives: on and the reflexive. Although some authors regard on as a lower-register form, it occurs at all levels of discourse with unfailing frequency. It certainly deals with a whole range of passives in English: Examples with on: On dit/pense/croit que. . . On ne m’a pas donn´e le livre.
It is said/thought/believed that. . . I wasn’t given the book / The book wasn’t given to me.
Examples with the reflexive: C ¸ a se comprend parfaitement. Bien sˆ ur que ¸ca se dit. Il se vend chaque semaine plusieurs centaines d’appareils. Le ladin se parle encore en Suisse et en Italie du nord.
That can be understood perfectly. Of course that’s said. Several hundred appliances are sold every week. Ladino is still spoken in Switzerland and northern Italy.
If one compares the English passive to its French use and frequency, the difference is quite striking. An English speaker who says I am helped in this project / to carry out this project would rarely find the same passive in French ` r´ealiser ce projet. and would hear, for instance, On m’aide dans ce projet / a Similarly, I am prevented from going out would be turned into On m’empˆeche de sortir. Whereas, in English, it is possible for an indirect object in an active clause to become the subject of a passive clause (e.g., my father gave me a book > I was given a book by my father), such a transformation is not permitted in French,
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and is to be avoided. In other words, the French active-voice sentence La r´eception me plaˆıt has no passive equivalent, as in English: I was pleased by the reception (see also below). At the same time, there exists a way of dealing with this lack of the passive in these circumstances. Voir used reflexively ( = se voir) is one such way, but such a construction is of a high register and would appear almost exclusively in the written language; if it were to occur in spoken French, it would have very refined associations: Les r´efugi´es se sont vus offrir des cadeaux. Jeanne et Franc¸oise se sont vus accorder le droit d’´etudier dans la facult´e des lettres. Les Mexicains ont fait une demande de visa, mais se l’ont vu refuser.
The refugees were offered presents. Jeanne and Franc¸oise were granted the right to study in the arts faculty. The Mexicans requested a visa, but were refused it.
Other verbs of high register that function in the same manner are: conf´erer, octroyer (to grant), attribuer, d´ecerner (to bestow). Similarly, entendre may be used with dire as the principal verb, but again the register is R3: Je ne me suis jamais entendu dire que je suis si intelligente que cela.
I have never been told that I am as intelligent as that.
A similar construction with the reflexive applies to the use of the semiauxiliaries faire and laisser. But there is a difference. Whereas, in the examples above, the reflexive is indirect, with these two verbs, the reflexive is direct, and the register is R2, very common currency in fact: Il s’est fait battre par l’agresseur. Elle s’est fait renverser par une voiture. Aucun ´etudiant ne s’est fait coller en maths.
He was beaten up by the hoodlum. She was knocked over by a car. No student was failed in math(s).
Although faire seems to have an active meaning in these sentences, this is far from the case. It does not suggest that the subject encourages or invites something to happen to him/her. Se faire + infinitive is purely passive, just as the following examples are: Elle s’est fait peindre la maison. Son fr`ere s’est laiss´e entraˆıner par une bande de voyous. Ah, se laisser bercer par les vagues au bord de la mer !
She had the house painted. Her brother was influenced by a bunch of hoodlums/louts. Oh, to be lulled by the waves at the seaside!
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The infinitive, the present participle and the past participle may also be used passively, and here again the register is R3. In some of these cases, the verb ˆetre is understood: ´lisabeth croyait ˆetre aim´ee de ´ E Elisabeth thought Jean loved her. Jean. Pierre, ayant ´et´e convaincu par Having been convinced by his brother, ` son projet. son fr`ere, renonc¸a a Pierre abandoned his plan. Pierre, convaincu par son fr`ere, Convinced by his brother, Pierre ` son projet. renonc¸a a abandoned his plan. Cette pratique semble observ´ee This practice seems to be observed by par bien des fid`eles. many of the faithful. On le savait respect´e mˆeme par People knew he was respected even by ses adversaires. his adversaries. Two past participles, concern´e and moqu´e, provoke considerable debate. The first finds no approval from the Acad´emie franc¸aise, whose members see in it either a straight calque from the English, and this can be sufficient to condemn it, or its persistent use. Notwithstanding this hostility, Littr´e expresses satisfaction with it: Vos amis sont concern´es dans cette affaire. Les int´erˆets concern´es par cette mesure. . .
Your friends are concerned by this business. The interests concerned by this measure. . .
The passive use of moquer (ˆetre moqu´e = to be mocked) also invites uneasiness, and not only from the august body referred to, but such uneasiness is more understandable. These days, in daily discourse, one only comes across se moquer de. The past participle is seriously out-of-date, although it may be seen in literary texts. We quote Hanse and Blampain: “Moquer est aujourd’hui vieilli ou litt´eraire dans son emploi transitif [. . .] Moins rares : se faire moquer, une vertu moqu´ee, un homme moqu´e par tout le monde. On dit couramment : se moquer de : Ils s’en sont moqu´es” (2005, p. 365). Of course, for an English speaker, the past participle used passively would cause no disturbance at all. Passive transformation is not possible in the following cases: With avoir, comporter, pouvoir and valoir. With numerous figurative expressions: prendre la fuite, perdre la tˆete, garder la tˆete froide, faire le fou/le malin/le mariole; and expresssions of the type: Cela me regarde; Elle tient de son p`ere un caract`ere calme. When the direct object is a part of the body of the person indicated by the subject: Adrienne baisse la tˆete / l`eve le bras. When the direct object is an infinitive: Je crois me tromper; Elle aime lire; Ils ` rire. commencent a
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There exist other cases where the transformation is relatively rare, but not impossible: J´er´emy a trouv´e une montre > Une montre a ´et´e trouv´ee par J´er´emy. Yet such a construction would be perfectly normal if it were in contrast, as in: La montre a ´et´e trouv´ee par J´er´emy, non par ma sœur. Although it is generally true that intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive, it does become possible when they occur in impersonal constructions, especially in administrative language of high register (less so in literature): ` toute proc´edure. Il sera sursis a Il sera statu´e sommairement sur le verdict. ` la c´er´emonie Il avait ´et´e proc´ed´e a le plus discr`etement possible.
All procedures will be deferred. A pronouncement will be made on the verdict. They proceeded most discreetly to the ceremony.
This construction often involves parler: Documents philosophiques dont il sera parl´e au chapitre suivant. Dans les milieux qu’il fr´equentait, il n’´etait parl´e de la Francmac¸onnerie qu’avec une extrˆeme circonspection.
Philosophical documents which will be discussed in the next chapter. In the circles he frequented, they spoke of Freemasonry only with extreme care.
The passive may be followed by an infinitive when it is not a direct object. There is no difficulty in putting the following supporting verb in the passive: L’homme fut accus´e par la police d’ˆetre un terroriste. ` ´etudier la nuit, elle Habitu´ee a dormait toute la journ´ee.
The man was accused by the police of being a terrorist. Accustomed to studying at night, she slept all day.
Certain verbs expressing opinions (pr´esumer, reconnaˆıtre, r´eputer, supposer) may be put in the passive with a following infinitive. The register here is clearly R3: Les d´ecisions sont pr´esum´ees ˆetre l’expression de la volont´e g´en´erale. Les dames chez qui on allait avaient ´et´e reconnues ˆetre de grandes intellectuelles. Sabrina ´etait r´eput´ee dominer plusieurs langues.
The decisions are presumed to be the expression of the general will. The ladies whom we visited were recognized as being great intellectuals. Sabrina had the reputation of mastering several languages.
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This theory is supposed to solve all the problems of inflation.
Eˆtre cens´e is of the same category but the register is lower and occurs in daily discourse, and easily in the negative: Je ne suis pas cens´ee le savoir. Elle ´etait cens´ee ˆetre en vacances.
I am not supposed to know. She was supposed to be on vacation.
35 Defective verbs / Les verbes d´efectifs
In some ways, one hesitates to include defective verbs in the present volume since, generally speaking, they are hardly ever used, and even then, only extremely limited parts of them occur. In numerous cases, they are classed as R3, or are already on the point of exiting the language. Parts of some verbs are, of course, standard R2, like d´echu. What is certain is that, since these verbs are defective and can vary even in usage and in form, no two French speakers necessarily agree on these features. Nevertheless, given that defective verbs form part of the French language, however tenuously, it seems appropriate to accord them treatment since some parts of certain defective verbs find themselves in current use. Defective verbs are verbs that lack certain tenses or parts of certain tenses. They are a linguistic feature not confined to French, for one comes across them in all Romance languages (Spanish: balbucir = to stammer; Italian: fervere = to be at its height), as well as in English (can, might, to beware). Considerable hesitation inhibits their use, which is why they occur less and less in the contemporary language, but at the same time they make a vigorous and healthy contribution to quiz programs. One can speculate that some, if not all, the defective verbs treated below will not exist in the not-too-distant feature. Before listing the main defective verbs and their peculiarities, certain characteristics need to be pointed out. Impersonal verbs, notably those referring to the weather, are not really defective, since they are logically only used in the third-person singular with the pronoun il and in the infinitive, apart from an occasional metaphoric exploitation (see Chapter 39 on impersonal verbs). Verbs that normally only have things or animals, and not persons, as a subject do not have the full conjugation, or the full conjugation is not exploited, except figuratively: advenir, s’amu¨ır, barrir, bˆeler, coasser, concerner, croasser, d´ecouler, d´egoutter, ´eclore, ´emaner, s’ensuivre, foisonner, gazouiller, hennir, luire, pulluler, r´esulter, sourdre, suinter. One could conceive of such verbs as barrir, coasser, croasser, gazouiller and so on being used figuratively and applied to humans. For example, a small child could have gazouiller applied to his/her burbling, although whether any 333
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person other than the third person would be used is another matter. Bˆeler could also apply to the silly bleating of a querulous person. But je bˆele, nous bˆelons and so on does not sound convincing. Certain colloquial verbs such as d´ebequeter, se carapater, chier, engueuler, emmerder, enquiquiner and picoler would hardly stand as candidates for the imperfect subjunctive or the past definite, tenses associated with high-register literary expression. Certain verbs have survived only as past or present participles, and it is not always clear when their infinitive and their various parts ceased to function, or ever functioned at all: carabin´e, d´evolu, ´eclop´e, enneig´e, ´eperdu, fourbu, inusit´e, usit´e (the last two apply in daily discourse to words), r´evolu, surann´e, d´enu´e (the infinitive still exists, as does enneiger, and commonly, in Switzerland), stup´efait. There now follows a list of defective verbs with comments and examples. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, usage can vary, and most French speakers never have recourse to them. It goes without saying that, if the verb has any currency, the infinitive is used. Accroire is only used as an infinitive with the verbs faire and laisser = to deceive, inveigle into (thinking): Elle nous a fait/laiss´e accroire qu’elle avait pass´e son doctorat. Braire (to bray – of a donkey): The infinitive and third person in various tenses occur: il brait / ils braient, il braira / ils brairont, il brairait / ils ˆnes dans les champs ? Again, as above, there brairaient: Tu entends braire les a is no reason why, in a figurative, Aesop / La Fontaine / Orwell satirical mode, we should not have recourse to, or invent, other persons (je/tu, ˆne, j’ai brait. etc.): Je fus un a Bruire (to rustle): Only used in the third-person singular and plural of the following tenses: present (bruit) and imperfect (bruissait) of the indicative; present subjunctive (bruisse); present participle (bruissant): J’entends l’eau qui bruit; Les grands arbres bruissent/bruissaient sous le vent l´eger. The very routine adjective bruyant = noisy comes from bruire. Chaloir (to matter): Only used in the third-person singular of the present indicative, and even then only rarely used: Peu nous en chaut. Peu leur chaut mon hostilit´e.
We are not particularly worried about it. They are not much bothered by my hostility.
Choir (to fall): Used notably in the third-person singular and plural, present indicative, and especially the infinitive after laisser: Apr`es de belles promesses, il nous a laiss´e choir.
After fine promises, he dropped us.
Clore (to close, to conclude): Used in only parts of the present tense: je clos, tu clos, il/elle clˆot. All other parts, save the infinitive and past participle
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clos, are too arcane to be included here: Il faut clore le d´ebat / la discussion; La s´eance / la session est close; C’est une affaire close. Camus refers to the world as a vase clos, a not infrequent expression signifying for him a self-contained world bereft of meaning and spiritual solution. D´echoir (to strip [of], to lower [oneself]): Used in the present indicative: je d´echois, tu d´echois, il/elle d´echoit, nous d´echoyons, vous d´echoyez, ils/elles d´echoient; preterit: je d´echus; future: je d´echoirai; present subjunctive: je d´echoie, nous d´echoyions, ils/elles d´echoient; imperfect subjunctive: je d´echusse (we are in the realm of comedy here, so rebarbative and alien it sounds); past participle: d´echu. The past participle still retains some frequency: un prince d´echu de son trˆone, un ange d´echu (a fallen angel). E´choir (to fall due, to be payable): Used in the present indicative, third person: ´echoit/´echoient; imperfect: ´ech´eait/´ech´eaient; preterit: ´echut/´echurent; future: ´echoira/´echoiront; past participle: ´echu; present participle: ´ech´eant. Le cas ´ech´eant (if need be / where appropriate) is an expression still in active use, as in cocher le cas ´ech´eant (check / tick where appropriate) and Les paiements ´ech´eant le premier du mois seront retard´es (Payments due the first of the month will be delayed). French grammars refer to the confusion arising from ´echoir and ´echouer (to fail), the latter enjoying widespread use, but such a mise en garde hardly seems necessary. Faillir (to fail): Used almost exclusively in the forms perfect + infinitive and past historic + infinitive: Elle a failli s’´evanouir (She almost fainted); Je faillis ` sa promesse (Sabrina did not keep her promise). me noyer; Sabrina a failli a Paradoxically, all its parts exist but they find little favor anywhere. F´erir (to strike): Only used in the infinitive in the expression sans coup f´erir (without striking a blow) and in the past participle: Elle est f´erue d’astronomie/maths (She is keen on astronomy/math[s]). Frire (to fry): Only used in the infinitive and past participle. As an infinitive it is preceded by faire: Je vais faire frire des oignons; du poisson frit. G´esir (to lie, to be lying down): Only used in the present and imperfect indicatives. Used almost entirely on tombstones, and one finds it everywhere in cemeteries: Ci-gˆıt (Here lies). The present participle has given rise to gisant(e) (recumbent figure or effigy one finds in a church for instance). Ou¨ır (to hear): Only heard in the infinitive and past participle, and even here, it has a highly literary or legal resonance. One could also hear it in the humorous: Oyez ! Oyez ! The expression par ou¨ı-dire (by hearsay) still maintains some value: Je sais, du moins par ou¨ı-dire, qu’elle a l’agr´eg(ation) (I know, at least by hearsay, that she has the agr´egation). It is not surprising that, given the dominant position of the French language in England from 1066 for some 400 years, the town crier’s invitation to pay attention to public proclamations was, and is still, preceded by Oyez ! Oyez !, a sound still commonly reaching Spanish ears with ¡Oye !, part of the standard verb o´ır=to hear, again not far from the English Oi! (See also the end of Chapter 30).
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Paˆıtre (to graze – of animals eating graze): Has many parts, but it is almost entirely used in the present third-person singular and plural indicative, and similarly with the imperfect. One could imagine: je pais, tu pais, je paissais, tu paissais and so on if Aesop et alia were describing animal activities and thoughts in the first person, but we, the readers, are very unlikely to use it as foreigners, and, from a bovine point of view, Les vaches/moutons paissent l’herbe. Brouter, a much easier and regular –er verb, replaces it. The circumflex in paˆıtre may be ignored, according to the Conseil sup´erieur de la langue franc¸aise. Poindre (to appear): Only found in the infinitive, and the third-person singular present, future and imperfect. In principle, it is conjugated like joindre, but there is some indecision here: Le soleil va poindre; On voit poindre les bourgeons (buds). Seoir (to suit, to fit): Only used as a present participle and the third-person singular of the following tenses: present indicative = sied, imperfect = seyait, future = si´era. Elle porte un chapeau qui sied parfaitement aux ` ravir. Grevisse and Goosse go on to profemmes; Ces tresses lui seyaient a vide subjunctive forms but only the most recondite of writings would exploit them. Traire (to milk – of a cow): Not used in the preterit or the imperfect subjunctive. What on earth could these forms be? Present indicative: Je trais, tu trais, il/elle trait, nous trayons, vous trayez, ils/elles traient; imperfect: je trayais; future: je trairai; imperative: traie, trayons, trayez; present subjunctive: je traie; present participle: trayant; past participle: trait. Les vaches sont traites (The cows are milked). This verb once had the meaning of to pull, to draw, as it still does in contemporary Spanish = traer. To be added here is that in country regions of France, Poitou for instance, one hears and says: Les vaches sont tir´ees. Conjugated like traire are abstraire, distraire, extraire, soustraire. Transir (to penetrate with cold/rain; also used of fear): Conjugated like finir for Grevisse and Goosse, but this is disputed by other grammarians. In any case, one need not worry since it is only used in the past participle: Nous ´etions transis (We were soaked to the skin); Elles sont rentr´ees transies de froid (They came home chilled to the bone); En sortant de la maison hant´ee, ils ´etaient transis de peur (Coming out of the haunted house, they were chilled with fear). There do exist other defective verbs. This list contains some comments. No conjugations are provided, given their recondite and unusable nature: adirer (to lose, to lack), apparoir (to appear, to be evident), ardre (to burn; see standard R2 arder in Spanish), attraire (to attract; a vigorous residue of this verb is attrayant = attractive), comparoir (to appear before a magistrate in court; entirely replaced by comparaˆıtre), contondre (to bruise; entirely replaced by contusionner), honnir (to shame, only found now in Honni soit qui mal y pense =
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Shame on him who evil thinks, expression surviving as the watchword for the British Order of the Garter); messeoir (not to fit/suit), occire (to kill; compare standard R2 Italian = uccidere), qu´erir (to fetch), raire (to bellow, as of a deer; conjugated like traire), reclure (to confine; past participle is still in circulation: reclus, as in Elle vivait une vie recluse / en recluse). The past participle ´eclop´e still exists (maimed, lame), as in un soldat ´eclop´e. Two other verbs require attention: foutre and ficher. Foutre (to do, to stick, to fuck) is a very common R1 verb that should be classified with an asterisk, to be used with care. Its main conjugations are: Present indicative: je fous, tu fous, il/elle fout, nous foutons, vous foutez, ils/elles foutent Imperfect indicative: je foutais Preterit: je foutis (very rare because the preterit relates to refined language and foutre is anything but refined) Future: je foutrai Imperative: fous, foutons, foutez Present subjunctive: foute Perfect: j’ai foutu This verb is used in a number of very commonplace expressions. A substantial range is provided since the verb is so flexible and widespread, and it is useful to be aware of it: Fous/Foutez-moi la paix ! Allez, les gars, on fout le camp. Qu’est-ce qu’elle a fait ? Elle a foutu la pagaille partout. Va te faire foutre ! ` foutre. J’ai rien a Les gars n’ont rien foutu toute la journ´ee.
Fuck off! Right, you guys, let’s fuck off. What’s she done? She’s fucked up everything. Fuck off / Bugger off! I’ve got damn all to do with it! / I couldn’t give a shit. The guys have done fuck all all day long.
Linked to this verb is ficher, which is entirely regular save for the past participle fichu, and the alternative infinitive form fiche. Used in the standard way, it signifies to stick (into/on), as in ficher un pieu en terre, but it provides a euphemistic outlet for foutre: Fiche le camp ! C´eline n’a rien fichu. Va te faire fiche ! Fiche-moi la paix !
Clear off! C´eline has done damn all. Fuck off / Get stuffed! Clear off!
Se fiche de or se ficher de means to make fun of, not to care about: Il s’est fichu de moi. Elle s’en fiche compl`etement.
He took the piss out of me. She doesn’t care at all about it.
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And se foutre de is its stronger expression: Je m’en fous comme de l’an quarante. Elle s’en fout, et royalement. Il se fout du monde. Elle se fout de ma gueule.
I couldn’t care a fuck. She doesn’t care a fuck. He doesn’t give a shit. She thinks fuck all about me.
36 Modal verbs / Les auxiliaires modaux
English has a relatively large number of auxiliary verbs (will, would, may, might, shall, should, must, ought) and verbal expressions (to be to: We were to arrive at nine; to have to: We had to go). Their main function is to express intentions or opinions (commands, possibilities, etc.). There is no straightforward match between these and their equivalents in French which, like Spanish and Italian, has a rather smaller number of auxiliary verbs (e.g., devoir, pouvoir, vouloir). The major differences between French and English are: French auxiliaries may normally be used in all tenses and moods (e.g., Je peux/puis, j’ai pu, j’avais pu, je pus, je pourrai, j’aurai pu, j’aurais pu, je puisse, j’aie pu), while English auxiliaries have a maximum of two (may, might), and sometimes only one (must). In English, the perfect auxiliary have is used only with the dependent infinitive (He may have done it), whereas in French avoir is used either with the dependent infinitive (Elle a pu ˆetre vex´ee = She could have been upset) or with the modal auxiliary (Elle peut avoir ´et´e vex´ee). There is a good deal of overlap in the values of modal auxiliaries in both French and English, but often they do not have equivalents.
36.1 Uses of the verb devoir For conjugations of devoir in main tenses and moods, see Chapter 30, and verb tables at the end of this volume. The most basic meaning of devoir is to owe, which determines the value of the constructions with the infinitive: Laetitia me doit/devait cent dollars/euros. ` mon Antoine doit son emploi a intervention. La mauvaise qualit´e de la nourriture se devait aux grandes chaleurs.
Laetitia owes/owed me a hundred dollars/euros. Antoine owes his job to my intervention. The poor quality of the food came from the intense heat.
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Devoir followed by an infinitive expresses obligation, necessity, probability or intention: Je dois partir avant minuit. Vous devez respecter le code de la route. Robin ne sait pas ce qu’il doit faire. Je l’ai quitt´ee parce que je devais partir. Elle a dˆ u s’absenter. Les garc¸ons m’ont tellement importun´e que j’ai dˆ u les ` la porte. mettre a Jeanne devait nous accompagner mais elle en a ´et´e empˆech´ee. Jeanne aurait dˆ u nous accompagner mais elle a ´et´e empˆech´ee.
I have to leave before midnight. You must respect the rules of the road / highway code. Robin doesn’t know what he has to do. I left her because I had to go. She had to go out / leave. The boys troubled me so much that I had to show them the door. Jeanne was to accompany us but was prevented. Jeanne was to accompany us but was prevented.
The two uses of devoir in the last two sentences have the same meaning. Obligation can imply a reason for doing something: Lucile ne sait si elle doit rire ou pleurer.
Lucile doesn’t know if she ought to laugh or cry.
Devoir can also suggest that a person is “well placed to know.” Moi, je ne sais pas, mais lui, il doit le savoir.
Me, I don’t know, but him, he ought to know.
Devoir can also point to what is just and reasonable: Son succ`es ne m’´etonne pas. ´lisabeth devait r´eussir. E C ¸ a devait commencer ou finir comme ¸ca. Marie devrait ˆetre rentr´ee.
Her success doesn’t surprise me. ´ Elisabeth was sure to succeed. It ought to begin or end like that. Marie ought to have gone home (by now).
Devoir often involves necessity: Tu dois passer l’examen. Christophe aurait dˆ u m’appeler. Sophie a dˆ u s’arrˆeter, faute d’essence.
You must take / get through the examination. Christophe ought to have called me. Sophie had to stop for she had run out of gas/petrol.
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Devoir can also evoke the idea of probability, intention or conjecture: In the present: Je dois le connaˆıtre. La campagne doit ˆetre belle en ce moment. Vous devez ˆetre fatigu´ees.
I ought to / must know him. The countryside must be lovely at the moment. You must be tired.
In the future: Le colis doit arriver sous peu. Il doit y avoir demain une assembl´ee g´en´erale. Je dois le voir demain.
The package must be arriving shortly. There has to be a general meeting tomorrow. I’ll have to see him tomorrow.
In this third case, the notion of likelihood is reduced, given the first-person perspective. Notice how the present tense is used in these sentences. The future of devoir in these examples has quite a different impact. If the three sentences immediately above changed the present tense to the future, a note of insistence or urgency would be introduced: Le colis devra arriver sous peu. Il devra y avoir demain une assembl´ee g´en´erale. Je devrai le voir demain.
The package has to arrive shortly. There will have to be a general meeting tomorrow. I’ll have to see him tomorrow.
In the past (imperfect and perfect): Il devait ˆetre dix heures quand Jeanne s’est manifest´ee. Il ne devait pas ˆetre bien tard quand nos amis sont arriv´es. L’avocat doit avoir pr´evu ce cas. L’avocat a dˆ u pr´evoir ce cas.
It must have been ten o’clock when Jeanne turned up. It couldn’t have been very late when our friends arrived. The lawyer must have foreseen this case. The lawyer must have foreseen this case.
These two sentences have exactly the same meaning, just as the two immediately below: St´ephanie doit s’ˆetre tromp´ee. St´ephanie a dˆ u se tromper.
St´ephanie must have made a mistake. St´ephanie must have made a mistake.
Just as: Elle doit d´ej` a l’avoir dit. Elle a dˆ u d´ej` a l’avoir dit.
She must have already said it. She must have already said it.
Just as in the passive: Virginie doit avoir ´et´e ´elue. Virginie a dˆ u ˆetre ´elue.
Virginie must have been elected. Virginie must have been elected.
However, in certain contexts, there is a difference between the construction a dˆ u + infinitive and doit avoir/ˆetre + past participle. In the first person, j’ai dˆ u partir can only imply obligation (I had to), unless one were in a comatose
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state when one left, whereas Il a dˆ u partir could suggest obligation or conjecture. The imperfect can also imply some future event, suggesting a kind of fatality: Margaret Mitchell publia Autant en emporte le vent en 1936, mais elle devait mourir un peu plus tard dans un accident de voiture.
Margaret Mitchell published Gone with the Wind in 1936, but was to die a little later in an automobile accident.
The idea here is: elle mourrait. Similarly: Elle quitta son mari mais devait le regretter l’ann´ee suivante. The idea here is: elle le regretterait.
She left her husband but was to regret it the following year.
In the future perfect: On aura dˆ u nettoyer la maison avant que nos parents ne reviennent.
We will have had to clean the house before our parents come home.
In the preterit (R3 here): Le m´edecin dut faire l’autopsie du cadavre. En plein d´esert, nous dˆ umes conserver les quelques gouttes d’eau qui nous restaient.
The physician had to carry out an autopsy on the body. Deep in the desert, we had to conserve the few remaining drops of water.
In the pluperfect: ´tant donn´e que l’on avait dˆ E u passer la nuit en pleine jungle, on ne pouvait atteindre le fleuve avant midi.
Given that we had had to spend the night deep in the jungle, we could not reach the river before midday.
In the conditional: Adrienne devrait terminer sa lecture. Nous devrions partir maintenant ` si nous voulions arriver a temps.
Adrienne ought to finish her book. We ought to leave now if we wanted to arrive in time.
In the conditional in the past: Le professeur aurait dˆ u se montrer plus indulgent. On aurait dˆ u conclure l’affaire ce matin.
The teacher ought to have been more indulgent. We ought to have concluded the business this morning.
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These last two examples could be turned devrait s’ˆetre montr´e . . . / devrait avoir conclu . . . but they are clumsy and attract the criticism that they are a calque on the English, and therefore to be avoided. After the conjunction si, devoir underlines possibility at the same time as it points more clearly to the future. The present and imperfect occur here: Si cela doit se reproduire, j’interviendrai. Si Franc¸oise doit revenir ` cinq heures, ce seulement a n’est pas la peine que nous l’attendions. Si David devait venir demain, je lui en parlerais.
If that has to happen again, I’ll intervene. If Franc¸oise is to come back only at five o’clock, it’s not worth waiting for her. If David were to come tomorrow, I would speak to him about it.
The use of devoir can combine probability with the need to tone down an affirmation: Vous devez faire erreur. Tu as dˆ u faire erreur.
You must be making an error. You must have made an error.
The construction se devoir de (to be morally obliged to), although of a high register, is in general use: Je me dois/devais d’apporter ma contribution financi`ere. ´tat se doit de soutenir les L’E victimes.
I must/had to give my financial contribution. The State must / owes it to itself to support the victims.
Devoir with the negation ne . . . pas: The case of devoir in the negative can be quite complex by virtue of its several meanings. In Je ne dois pas insister, one denies the obligation, and the construction ne . . . pas is attached to devoir, just as Cela n’a pas dˆ u te surprendre denies Cela a dˆ u te surprendre. However, when the negation ne . . . pas is attached more to the infinitive, it implies refusal or banning, since it carries more weight and is stronger in intent. Contrast the two following sentences: Tu ne dois pas oublier ton portefeuille and Tu dois ne pas oublier ton portefeuille. The second sentence suggests a greater insistence. Devoir in the negative can often point to probability: ´l´eonore ne doit pas tarder. E Ils n’ont pas dˆ u s’en apercevoir. Jean ne doit pas ˆetre parti ce matin. C ¸ a ne doit pas ˆetre difficile.
´l´eonore should not be long. E They couldn’t have realized it. Jean couldn’t have left this morning. That can’t be difficult.
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Uses of devoir in the subjunctive. Some of these subjunctives clearly apply to the written form alone, notably the imperfect. Present, indicating obligation: Je regrette que tu doives partir.
I’m sorry you have to go.
Present, indicating inference: Je ne crois pas qu’elle doive travailler si dur.
I don’t think she must work so hard.
Perfect, indicating obligation: C’est malheureux qu’elle ait dˆ u vendre sa voiture.
It’s unfortunate she has had to sell her car.
Perfect, indicating inference: Je ne crois pas qu’elle ait dˆ u lire Guerre et paix.
I don’t think she could have read War and Peace.
Imperfect, indicating obligation: Il craignait que je dusse partir tout de suite.
He feared that I would have to leave immediately.
Imperfect, indicating inference: Je ne croyais pas que Jeanne dˆ ut voyager seule.
I did not think that Jeanne would travel alone.
Pluperfect, indicating obligation: Il n’´etait pas clair que Lucile eˆ ut ` dˆ u passer toute la semaine a l’hˆ opital.
It was not clear that Lucile had had to spend all week at the hospital.
Other uses of devoir which are not always related to the modal concept: As an infinitive: Mon fr`ere est parti sans devoir payer l’addition. Antoine s’est rendu compte de devoir remplir ses engagements.
My brother left without having to pay the bill. Antoine realized he would have to fulfill his commitments.
As a present participle: Devant partir tˆ ot le matin, on a ` cinq pris le petit-d´ejeuner a heures.
Having to leave early in the morning, we had our breakfast at five o’clock.
As a past infinitive: Je regrette d’avoir dˆ u renvoyer la bonne.
I was sorry to have had to dismiss the maid.
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With the past participle with the idea of what is due: This sum is due April 15.
Ce montant est dˆ u pour le 15 avril. les sommes dues payer son dˆ u
the due sums to pay one’s due
Dˆ u also suggests cause, as in due to: Cette inondation est due aux fortes pluies de juillet.
This flood is due to the heavy July rains.
Dˆ u is used in the masculine singular form to distinguish it from the partitive article du. The other forms do not have the circumflex and there is no difference in pronunciation. Agreement of the past participle requires care. Compare the two following sentences: Elle lui a fait toutes les promesses qu’elle a dˆ u (lui faire). Il a toujours rembours´e les sommes qu’il a dues.
She made him all the promises she had to. He (has) always repaid the sums he owed.
In the first case, the preceding direct object is promesses, related to faire which is implied, and therefore there can be no agreement. In the second case, sommes is the preceding direct object of devoir, and here there is agreement.
36.2 Uses of the verb pouvoir Pouvoir is an irregular verb; for conjugations, see the verb tables at the end of this volume. The uses of this verb include more than the modal values. The infinitive is used as a noun meaning power: Marcel a le pouvoir de refuser la proposition.
Marcel has the power to refuse the proposal.
It can also suggest authority: le pouvoir l´egislatif/ex´ecutif
legislative/executive power
It also suggests influence or a mandate: La d´eput´ee recherche le pouvoir.
The representative / member of Parliament is seeking power (as president, for example).
Pouvoir is a true auxiliary in that it applies to a following infinitive. It corresponds to the English to be able, expressing physical power or prowess, often translated by the defective verb can:
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´ Elisabeth can swim a good kilometer. My son can now go to school by himself.
A distinction should be made here between pouvoir and savoir; the English can / is able to is confusing since can and know how to are possible when it is a question of knowing how to, where only savoir is possible in French. Compare the first of the two examples immediately above and the following one: ´lisabeth sait nager / jouer du E violon.
´ Elisabeth knows how to swim (but not necessarily a kilometer) / knows how to play the violin (can could be used here).
Pouvoir also applies to permissibility: The children can play in the yard.
Les enfants peuvent jouer dans la cour. On peut manger ici ?
Can we eat here?
When the negative is used, pouvoir has two meanings, which depend on where the ne . . . pas is in the sentence. Compare the two sentences: Francis ne peut pas faire son devoir. Francis peut ne pas faire son devoir.
Francis cannot do his homework. Francis does not need to do his homework.
Notice the use of the double negative: Elle ne pouvait pas ne pas hurler de douleur. Jeanne ne peut pas ne pas l’avouer.
She couldn’t help screaming with pain. Jeanne cannot but confess it.
The omission of the pas indicates a higher register, as with cesser, savoir and oser: Adrienne ne pouvait se passer de la musique classique. Philippe n’a pu venir.
Adrienne could not do without classical music. Philippe hasn’t been able to come.
The omission of the pas is not possible with the double-negative construction above. As with devoir (see above), there is no agreement with the past participle of pouvoir when it is used as a modal auxiliary: J’ai lu tous les livres que j’ai pu pour les examens.
I read all the books I could for the exams.
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Pouvoir can also indicate approximation: La dame pouvait avoir dans les The lady was probably about quarante-cinq ans. forty-five years old. Il pouvait ˆetre six heures quand It was doubtless about six o’clock j’ai entendu la bagarre. when I heard the row. Pouvoir can suggest audacity: Comment peux-tu mettre ma parole en doute ? Comment peux-tu oser l’accuser d’un tel d´elit ?
How can you call my word into question? How can you dare accuse her of such a crime?
Pouvoir with bien can indicate opposition: Antoine peut promettre tout ce qu’il veut mais je ne le crois pas.
Antoine may promise all he wishes but I (still) don’t believe him.
Bien can strengthen pouvoir: C’est une maladie dont il pourrait bien mourir. Lucile pourrait bien s’en tirer toute seule.
It’s an illness from which he could die. Lucile might well deal with it by herself.
Pouvoir has some idiomatic uses, and often an infinitive is implied: On a pass´e un s´ejour on ne peut plus agr´eable. Cette robe lui allait on ne peut mieux. Je n’en peux plus. Je n’en peux plus de fatigue. Cela/C ¸ a se peut. Cela/C ¸ a se pourrait bien. Cela ne se peut pas.
We had a most pleasant stay. That dress suits her splendidly. I’m exhausted. I’m worn out. That’s possible. That’s possible. That’s not possible.
The Acad´emie franc¸aise also accepts Cela ne se peut. Pouvoir does not always translate can, especially where perception is concerned: On voyait au loin des colonnes de fum´ee. Henri avait du sable plein les yeux et ne voyait rien. J’ai entendu chanter le coq. Je ne sais pas ce qui se passe. Je n’entends rien. Il sentait le parfum de ses bras.
We could see columns of smoke far off. Henri’s eyes were full of sand and he could see nothing. I could hear the cock crow. I don’t know what is happening. I can’t hear anything. He could smell the perfume of her arms.
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Of course, if serious effort were suggested, pouvoir would be used: The farmer peered into the valley, and finally, he could see the flock.
Le fermier scrutait du regard le fond de la vall´ee et, finalement, il put voir le troupeau.
36.3 Tenses and moods of pouvoir (see the verb tables at the end of this volume for the full conjugations) Infinitive: Je voudrais pouvoir jouer au foot ce soir.
I would like to be able to play soccer this evening.
Indicative: Present: je peux, je puis, tu peux, etc. Je peux is used much more than je puis, but puis-je replaces the other form in questions: Puis-je vous accompagner ?
May I accompany you?
Perfect: j’ai pu, tu as pu, etc. Martine a pu venir avec nous.
Martine has been able / was able to come with us.
Past infinitive: ` Je ne crois pas avoir pu arriver a temps.
I don’t think I would have been able to arrive / could have arrived in time.
Imperfect: Jean n’´etait pas assez fort. Il ne pouvait pas faire le trajet.
Jean wasn’t strong enough. He couldn’t manage the trip.
Preterit: L’h´ero¨ıne put sauver son amant. Nous pˆ umes regagner l’autre rive sans trop de difficult´e.
The heroine managed to save her lover. We could reach the other bank without too much difficulty.
Pˆ umes is less used than put, and pˆ utes even less so. Pluperfect: On a fait tout ce que l’on avait pu faire pour terminer la tˆ ache.
We did all we could have to complete the work.
Future: Nous pourrons venir demain si tu veux.
We will be able to / can come tomorrow if you wish.
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Future in the past: J’aurai pu pr´eparer le repas avant ton retour.
I’ll have been able to get the meal ready before you come back.
Conditional: St´ephanie pourrait t’aider ce soir.
St´ephanie would be able to / could help you this evening.
Conditional in the past: Guillaume aurait pu t’emmener ` la gare si tu le lui avais a demand´e.
Guillaume could have taken you to the station if you had asked him.
Subjunctive: Present: Je ne crois pas que Philippe puisse revenir.
I don’t think Philippe can come back.
Perfect: Je regrette que Marie n’ait pu r´eussir son examen.
I’m sorry Marie couldn’t get through her examination.
Imperfect (rarely used save in the third-person singular, and even here only in writing): Il ´etait douteux que le candidat ` la hauteur. fˆ ut a
It was doubtful that the candidate was equal to the task.
Gerund: Simple: Pouvant partir dans l’apr`es-midi, nous avons profit´e de toute la matin´ee pour jouer aux cartes.
Being able to leave in the afternoon, we took advantage of the whole morning to play cards.
Compound: Ayant pu consulter mon m´edecin la veille, je suis partie faire du ski au Colorado.
Having been able to consult my physician the previous day, I left to do some skiing in Colorado.
37 Ellipsis of verbs in main and subordinate clauses / L’ellipse du verbe dans la proposition principale et la proposition subordonn´ee In a general way, ellipsis refers to the absence of words or a series of words which would be necessary for the regular construction of a sentence or the complete expression of a thought.
37.1 Ellipsis of the verb in a main clause In several expressions, the verb of the main clause is understood through ellipsis. This usually implies the exclusion of verbs such as ˆetre, croire, penser, assurer: Sˆ ur qu’elle n’est pas pauvre. Impossible que notre fille revienne aujourd’hui. Sans aucun doute que tu mens.
(I’m) sure she’s not poor. Impossible that our daughter come back today. No doubt you are lying.
A proposition beginning with que may perform the function of a subject, and this usually entails the subjunctive. This construction has the value of the fact that and may be seen as the shortened form of le fait que. Que l’avion parte plus tard me pr´eoccupe. Que nos enfants aient r´eussi tous les examens nous emballe. Que Pierre ait menti me fait honte.
That the airplane should leave later concerns me. The fact that our children have passed their exams delights us. That Pierre should lie makes me feel ashamed.
37.2 Ellipsis of the verb in a subordinate clause After verbs such as croire, penser, juger, estimer: Louise croit l’examen facile. Je trouve le livre trop cher. 350
Louise thinks the exam is easy. I find the book too dear.
Ellipsis of verbs in main clauses L’athl`ete juge sa performance magnifique. J’estime sa contribution incontournable.
351 The athlete judges his performance magnificent. I judge her contribution unavoidable.
Que + subjunctive has a widespread use in the sense of Let him/her, etc. + finite verb. English has no true equivalent here, although this is a common construction in all Romance languages: Que tout le monde s’asseye. Si Marcel ne peut pas y aller maintenant, qu’il y aille demain.
Let everyone sit down. If Marcel can’t go now, let him go tomorrow.
Ellipsis of the finite verb in the subordinate clause is characteristic of the written style, where it is replaced by an infinitive. See Chapter 18 for a fuller treatment of this subject. Franc¸oise a d´emontr´e parler un japonais parfait. Antoine croit toujours avoir raison.
Franc¸oise has demonstrated that she can speak perfect Japanese. Antoine always thinks he is right.
37.3 Miscellaneous applications of ellipsis Note the loss of il in il faut in R1 language: Faut pas venir avant midi. Faut ´etudier plus que ¸ca pour r´eussir. ` cent quarante. Fallait pas rouler a
Don’t come before midday. You have to study more than that to succeed. You ought not to have driven at 140 kilometers (an hour).
Although dates such as le mardi 18 janvier and le jeudi 31 octobre are standard these days, they are really elliptical expressions, deriving from le dixhuiti`eme jour du mois de janvier and so on. The use of enchant´e: “Je vous pr´esente Mme Legrand.” “Enchant´e, Madame.” (= Je suis enchant´e de faire votre connaissance.)
“May I introduce you to Mme Legrand?” “Delighted to meet you.”
A kind of suspension at the end of the sentence can occur in R1 style. Something is left unsaid, usually negative: ` m’agacer. . . Si tu continues a Tu prends un parapluie au cas o` u. . .
If you go on annoying me. . . Take an umbrella in case. . .
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Parce que can be used in a milar way: “Pourquoi tu ne veux pas sortir avec Jean ?” “Parce que. . .”
“Why don’t you want to go out with Jean?” “Because. . .”
In dialogues, replies are often short, picking up where the first speaker leaves off: “O` u est Roland ?” “Chez sa m`ere.” “Il partira demain.” “Par le train ?” “Annick est m´econtente.” “Sa m`ere aussi.”
“Where is Roland?” “At his mother’s.” “He’s going tomorrow.” “By train?” “Annick is annoyed.” “Her mother as well.”
Ellipsis occurs where there is coordination between two elements: Je partirai avec ou sans votre permission.
I’ll go with or without your permission.
In R1 language: Je partirai avec votre permission ou sans. Ellipsis can occur when coordinated clauses have the same verb: ˆg´ee avait huit ans, la plus La plus a jeune cinq ans. Le soleil ´etait brillant, le ciel resplendissant, la mer ´etincelante.
The oldest was eight years old, the youngest five. The sun was brilliant, the sky radiant, the sea sparkling.
While grammarians require for the same verb the same person and number, this is frequently not respected: Tu seras le roi, et moi le comte. ` New York, C´edric retournera a ` Qu´ebec. nous a Les boutiques ´etaient ferm´ees, la rue silencieuse.
You can be the king, and me/I the count. C´edric will go back to New York, and we’ll go back to Quebec. The shops were closed and the street silent.
If the determiner applies to two nouns, it is possible to express only the second noun. Le sentier passait entre deux ou trois fermes.
The path went between two or three farms.
Comme si in R1 language finds considerable favor: Elle ne s’est aperc¸ue de rien. Je ne puis croire qu’elle a fait comme si. . .
She didn’t notice anything. I can’t believe that she acted as if (she didn’t notice anything). . .
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Tout comme has the same value: Elle n’avait rien compris. Mais c’´etait tout comme.
She understood nothing. But it was as if she had.
When two adjectives describe the same noun, the adjective may be attached to the first or second noun: pendant le premier et le second acte entre les lignes allemande et franc¸aise J’adore la viande rˆ otie et la bouillie.
during the first and second acts between the German and French lines I adore roast and boiled meat.
If adjectives are usually placed before the noun, this noun occurs after the second adjective: Comment distinguer entre les bons et les mauvais anges ? Je ne vois aucune diff´erence entre le vrai et le faux tableau. Je n’ai pas lu l’Ancien et le Nouveau Testament.
How can you distinguish between good and bad angels? I can see no difference between the authentic and false painting. I haven’t read the Old and New Testament.
Ellipsis can occur even when there is no determiner: Trente ans de vie priv´ee et trois de publique furent le sort du Christ.
Thirty years of private life and three public was Christ’s lot.
When two nouns are coordinated, but one expressed and the other omitted, one may see the following: L’invasion allemande bouleversa la face de la France et du monde.
The invasion of France overturned the whole of France and the world.
Verbs such as devoir, pouvoir, vouloir, dire and croire are often subject to the ellipsis of the infinitive or a preposition: Sabrina a accompli toutes les tˆ aches qu’elle a dˆ u. Je fais tous les efforts que je peux (faire). Axelle m’a aid´ee autant qu’elle a pu. Louis m’a fourni tous les renseignements que j’ai voulu (qu’il me donne).
Sabrina fulfilled all the tasks she had to. I make all the efforts I can. Axelle helped me as much as she could. Louis gave me all the information I wanted.
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He didn’t live as long as he would have believed. Come when you can/wish.
Faire serves as a substitute for other verbs: Elle travaille plus que je ne fais.
She works more than I do.
As do disjunctive pronouns for verbs: Il court plus rapidement que moi. Jeanne utilise l’ordinateur mieux que moi.
He runs faster than I/me. Jeanne uses the computer better than me.
Que can replace conjunctions comme, quand, si and comme si when these have already been used: ´l´eonore ne travaille pas Comme E le soir et qu’elle se l`eve de bon matin. . . Quand Adrienne reviendra et qu’elle ne retrouvera pas sa voiture. . . Si Robin peut partir de bonne heure et qu’il vienne me chercher en voiture. . .
As E´l´eonore doesn’t work in the evening and gets up early in the morning. . . When Adrienne comes back and finds her car missing. . . If Robin can leave early and fetch me in his car. . .
Notice that with si the second verb can be in the subjunctive, a mark of higher register. Below is a disparate list of words or expressions that avoid the need for repetition: Tu restes, moi non. Elle dit que oui/non. Aller en pension ? J’aime mieux pas. Mon fr`ere a ´etudi´e toute la semaine. Moi de mˆeme. Les feux d’artifice de Montr´eal ` 22h; idem ceux de auront lieu a Qu´ebec. J’ai vu dans la maison toutes sortes d’outils : des scies, des marteaux, des tournevis et c´etera. Il a cit´e des auteurs grecs, latins, anglais, etc.
You remain, but not me. She says yes/no. To stay in lodgings? I prefer not to. My brother studied all week. I did the same. Montreal fireworks start at 10 this evening, and the same for Quebec. I saw in the house all sorts of tools, saws, hammers, screwdrivers, et cetera. He quoted Greek, Latin, English authors, etc.
Ellipsis of verbs in main clauses Laurent a racont´e tous les ´ev´enements de son voyage, la ` perte de ses billets, l’accident a l’hˆ otel, la rencontre fortuite avec Pierre et patati et patata. Livres, bibelots, outils, paperasses et ainsi de suite, tout ´etait l` a.
355 Laurent related all the events of his journey, the loss of his tickets, the accident at the hotel, the fortuitous meeting with Pierre, and so on and so forth. Books, trinkets, tools, documents and so on, it was all there.
“Ibid.” can also be used to avoid repeating a full reference: Camus, La peste, p. 249; ibid., p. 278. Notice a range of nouns with a vague meaning all evoking thing, thingummy: bidule, chose, machin, truc (all masculine, even chose in this context) and histoire, while bazar is not uncommon in Belgium: Qu’est-ce que c’est ce bidule/chose/machin/truc que tu as dans ta poche ? C’est quoi, cette histoire-l` a? Le bazar a pris feu. . . Non, pas l’aspirateur, mais mon pantalon.
What’s that thing you’ve got in your pocket? What’s that thing there? The thing caught fire. . . No, not the vacuum cleaner, but my pants.
38 Idiomatic uses of aller, avoir, ˆetre, faire and prendre / Les expressions idiomatiques concernant aller, avoir, ˆetre, faire et prendre Below is a passage describing the delights of an autumnal Scotland, the customs associated with this country, certain activities, one of which, fox hunting, is now banned, and finally the gastronomic joys of a Scottish table. The passage includes a wide range of idiomatic expressions related to the use of verbs, and these are highlighted. Some translations are provided. ´ cosse Un bel automne en E Il est [There are] des souvenirs remplis de tendresse lorsque nous ´cosse. Les lochs ´ecossais comme le Loch ´evoquons notre s´ejour en E ´cosse, ma Ness, le Loch Lomond fascinent. De tous mes p´eriples en E saison pr´ef´er´ee reste l’automne. Un charme irr´esistible s’exerce sous ´cosse, sous une pluie fine, grˆ ` un jeu de les brumes automnales d’E ace a ` un soleil radieux, ainsi qu’aux reflets de couleurs qui vont lumi`eres, a se d´egradant [which continue to fade] au cours d’une mˆeme journ´ee. ` mi-chemin quand Ir`ene nous fit parvenir un texto Nous en ´etions a ` son travail. Sans [had a text message sent to us] alors qu’elle ´etait a aucun moyen de locomotion, on eut besoin de prendre le train pour ` son texto lui rendre visite. Nous n’avions qu’` a l’avertir et r´epondre a pour lui indiquer notre heure d’arriv´ee. Le groupe avait trop hˆ ate de ´cossaise avait une quarantaine ` la gare. Cette belle E rencontrer Ir`ene a d’ann´ees. Elle s’´etait fait couper les cheveux chez le coiffeur pour se ` notre arriv´ee. Elle avait les yeux noisette [hazel-colored faire belle a eyes] qui caract´erisaient son regard plein de tendresse, de bont´e et de g´en´erosit´e. Nous d´ecidions de faire un tour chez les Taylor avant d’aller avec ` un spectacle de danses ´ecossaises. Ir`ene ´etait une force de la Ir`ene a ` dire : « The blood is strong. » La famille d’Ir`ene nature. Elle se plaisait a ´cosse lorsque les membres de la famille se parlait la langue ga´elique d’E retrouvaient entre eux. Malcolm, le chef du clan, allait sur ses soixante ans. Il ´etait joueur de cornemuse. Il portait souvent le kilt traditionnel, fabriqu´e dans un tissu de laine peign´ee, avant de se rendre au village. Le kilt lui allait bien ! Il faut comprendre qu’un homme portant une
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jupe nous a pris au d´epourvu ! L’id´ee lui avait pris de venir nous rejoindre au spectacle. Nous adorions prendre nos aises dans les Highlands. Un parcours de golf situ´e en bordure du Loch Lomond accueille des comp´etitions internationales. La distillerie de whisky ´etait tr`es visit´ee. Les visiteurs appr´eciaient le whisky ´ecossais fabriqu´e localement avec des produits du terroir comme l’orge [barley], l’avoine [oats], le seigle [rye] ou le ma¨ıs. Nous faisions un simple aller-retour pour visiter le lieu. ` courre au renard et Malcolm avait un goˆ ut prononc´e pour la chasse a au li`evre. Heureusement que le « fox hunting » longtemps pratiqu´e en ´cosse est d´esormais interdit dans cette r´egion sous peine d’ˆ E etre poursuivi en justice [taken to court]. Plus question pour Malcolm d’aller au sanglier, au lapin ou au chevreuil. La pr´eservation de la faune sauvage, de l’environnement, de ce site exceptionnel est devenue une priorit´e absolue. Apr`es notre spectacle de danse, nous avions grand faim. Nous avions ` table, son hˆ ate de manger des sp´ecialit´es locales pr´epar´ees par Ir`ene. A ´epoux faisait toujours la conversation pendant qu’elle dressait une table magnifique en agenc¸ant avec soin les fruits de saison comme les pommes, les poires, les raisins. Nous avions envie de prendre un th´e chaud accompagn´e de scones, de crumpets et de golden syrup. Les ´cossais avaient l’air enchant´e de recevoir dans les Highlands des visE ` la pluie, il se iteurs d’Outre-Manche. Mˆeme lorsque le temps ´etait a d´egageait une atmosph`ere douceˆ atre. Il suffisait de profiter pleinement de ce climat de s´er´enit´e et de repartir avec des images plein la tˆete. Nous allons faire de nos souvenirs un livre. Ce voyage m’a rendue folle de joie. Il y avait vraiment de quoi s’amuser.
This collection of very common verbs illustrates their idiomatic uses which, generally speaking, do not correspond to the use of their English counterparts. It may be argued that this does not fall into the precinct of grammar but, in fact, most of these constructions involve grammatical difficulties. The illustrations do not contain examples which an English speaker would expect to find, and where there is a clear correspondence between English and French, for instance Laurent va lire le journal (Laurent is going to read the newspaper); L’homme prend le train (The man takes the train). Another feature of idiom derives from the effect produced on Quebec French by the proximity to the United States, and to English-speaking Canada, which tends to supplant on occasions the traditional way of saying and writings things. What is happening in Quebec, linguistically speaking, is repeated in Mexico and much of Spanish America where calques or straightforward and literal copies and translations from the northern neighbor are provoking serious disturbances in Spanish. See the end of this chapter for some examples of this new choice of idiom in French which seems to be blighting the older and more acceptable way of expressing oneself.
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38.1 Idiomatic uses of aller ` cheval / a ` moto / a ` v´elo / a ` bicyclette (often: J’y vais Aller + preposition: J’y vais a en moto / en v´elo but this is R1); J’y vais en bateau / en voiture / en train / en ` l’´epicerie / a ` la boucherie / a ` la boulangerie; but: Je vais chez avion; Je vais a l’´epicier / chez le boucher / chez le boulanger / chez le dentiste / chez le coiffeur / ` is used for place while chez le garagiste / chez les Lano¨e. The preposition a chez is used for the person who works there. In the case of dentiste and coiffeur, it is possible to say: Je vais au dentiste / au coiffeur but, although this expression is extremely widespread, it is considered of a lower register than its equivalent with chez, and some would discourage its use. For aller with place names, see Chapter 64 on geographical names. ` is used as a hunting term: Aller a On va au sanglier / au lapin.
We’re going to hunt wild boar / rabbits.
The expression Comment ¸ca va ? (How are you?) is used for wellbeing, as in: Je vais tr`es bien, merci. I am very well, thank you. Annick va mieux aujourd’hui. Annick is better today. Comment va ? is also in general use, but belongs to the R1 register. The imperatives Vas-y !, Allez-y ! (Go on / Keep it up!) are used for encouragement. Forms of the imperative are also used as interjections, especially in R1 style to press home a judgment, a threat or a sense of annoyance. These interjections do not accommodate translations very easily: Cr´etin, va !; Ne t’inqui`ete pas, va !; Allons, ne t’inqui`ete pas !; Allez/Allons, viens/d´ecidezvous/venez ici !; Allons, ¸ca recommence; Allons donc/Allez donc, c’est impossible. Aller + en + present participle suggests the idea of continuation and has a literary (R3) resonance. The absence of the preposition en no longer prevails in the current language: Son inqui´etude va en croissant.
Her worry is growing.
S’en aller may be used in the same way: Cette femme s’en va mourant.
This lady is slowly dying.
Aller sur is used with age: Mes grands-parents vont sur leurs quatre-vingts ans.
My grandparents are coming up to eighty.
S’en aller = to go away: Va-t-en ! / Allez-vous-en ! La fillette s’en est all´ee. Je m’en suis all´e.
Go away! The little girl went away. I went away.
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Hanse and Blampain state clearly (2005, p. 43) that Je me suis en all´e is correct and has been common currency for a long time, but the present authors would refute it. One suspects that it is a regionalism characteristic of Belgium. S’en aller may be used as an alternative to aller. This is used in colloquial style and almost exclusively in the first-person singular, present tense: Je m’en vais te le dire.
I’m going to tell you.
Aller may be used with the idea of to suit: Ce chapeau lui va bien. La robe ne lui va pas bien.
This hat suits her (well). The dress doesn’t suit her.
If aller is used in compound tenses with the same meaning, the past participle all´e can be replaced by ´et´e: Cette robe ne lui va pas bien et d’ailleurs ne lui a jamais bien ´et´e.
This dress doesn’t suit her and moreover has never suited her.
Or Cette robe . . . ne lui est jamais bien all´ee. Aller + infinitive can have a fictitious or a metaphoric quality, as in English (go and + verb), and there is nearly always a negative suggestion here: Pourvu que Jeanne n’aille pas se fˆ acher. N’allez pas vous imaginer que je suis contente. Ne va pas penser que je le ferai demain.
Provided that Jeanne doesn’t go and get angry. Don’t you go and imagine I am happy. Don’t go and think I’ll do it tomorrow.
Aller pour is used in theatrical indications: Il va pour l’embrasser mais elle le repousse. Elle va pour lui r´epondre, puis elle y renonce.
He makes as though to kiss her but she repels him. She makes as though to reply to him, but she withdraws.
Aller + the infinitive of aller is not unusual, and is not limited to R1 usage, however pleonastic this construction may appear: Je vais aller le voir.
I’m going to see him / I’m going to go and see him.
Mauriac, stylist if ever there was one, writes in his Journal: Nous allons aller aux sources de la Hure (1932–1939, p. 333).
We are going (to go) to the source of the Hure.
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One even comes across Nous allons y aller, with an intercalated pronoun. Note that the verb aller cannot usually stand independently, as in English, if a simple direction is involved. It requires at least a pronoun like y: J’y vais maintenant; On y va ?; Allons-y !
I go now; We go now?; Let’s go!
But, if the future occurs, one would say and write, omitting the y: J’ai rec¸u un courriel de Paris. J’irai la semaine prochaine.
I’ve received an email from Paris. I’ll go there next week.
Aller also serves as a noun: un match aller et un match retour
a first leg and a second leg
Match aller here does not necessarily mean an away game, notwithstanding the apparent implication of aller. J’ai pris un aller pour New York. J’a pris deux allers pour Miami. J’ai pris deux allers-retours.
I took a one-way ticket for New York. I took two one-way tickets for Miami. I took two returns.
One comes across des aller et retour and even des aller, but such constructions are to be discouraged.
38.2 Idiomatic uses of avoir In numerous uses of avoir, this verb takes a noun while in English the verb to be, which largely corresponds to these uses, takes an adjective. If the noun is qualified in any way, one would have expected an adjective to carry out this function, as in Spanish and Italian (Tengo mucha hambre, Ho molta fame), but this is not the case, and there is a lack of logic here. Tr`es, for example, is used: J’ai chaud (I am hot) / faim (hungry) / froid (cold) / honte (ashamed) / peur (frightened) / raison (right) / soif (thirsty) / sommeil (sleepy) / tort (wrong) > J’ai tr`es chaud/faim/froid/honte and so on (tr`es is not used with besoin, hˆ ate, raison, tort). It may be added that, once upon a time, and still in certain areas, one finds J’ai grand faim/froid (and no e for grand). If the noun is qualified in other ways (not with tr`es alone), one would have recourse to the indefinite article: J’avais une faim de ` faire rougir la fille la plus effront´ee; J’avais une peur loup; J’avais une honte a bleue. This also applies to the verb faire below, but with chaud and froid these constructions are not possible. These expressions may also combine with adverbs of comparison: aussi, plus, assez, si, trop:
Idiomatic uses of verbs J’ai aussi peur que vous. Elle avait si peur qu’elle ne voulait pas partir. J’avais trop faim pour manger plus tard. Le jeune homme avait tr`es envie d’elle. J’ai aussi faim que toi / si faim que. . .
361 I am as frightened as you. She was so frightened that she wouldn’t leave. I was too hungry to eat later. The young man really wanted her. I am as hungry as you / so hungry that. . .
One can also say: J’ai bien/fort soif.
I am very thirsty.
` (to have to deal Further idiomatic uses of avoir with no article: avoir affaire a with, to face), avoir besoin de (to need), avoir envie de (to want something, to do something), avoir piti´e de (to pity, to take pity on), avoir soin de (to take care of ). In conformity with other Romance languages (Spanish = tener, Italian = avere), French requires avoir when referring to age, while English has ˆge: Audrey a vingt ans/une the verb to be. This applies to ans/ann´ees and a ˆge, la petite ? In the first of these examples, vingtaine d’ann´ees; Elle a quel a an English-speaker could say Audrey is twenty, but not so in French. Yet, if ans has already been used, it could be omitted for the second time, when the pronoun en replaces it: Daniel a dix ans, mais sa sœur en a trois. Avoir + noun can express a physical reaction, often in the preterit or perfect: Virginie a eu un geste d´esapprobateur. Marine eut un mouvement de plaisir.
Virginie made a disapproving gesture. Marine showed a pleasurable gesture.
En avoir pour corresponds to the idea of time or money available, or effort required: “Tu peux venir maintenant ?” “Non, j’en ai pour une petite heure.” “La voiture ? J’en ai pour quinze mille euros.”
“Can you come now?” “No, I’ve got just about an hour’s work.” “The car? It’ll cost me fifteen thousand euros.”
Avoir is only used in the passive with the idea of to trick, to dupe, and here it is R1 and very common: J’ai encore ´et´e eu(e).
I’ve been tricked/had again.
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Note how avoir may be used with the idea of having someone to a meal, or speaking to someone on the telephone: ` dˆıner. Je les aurai demain a Jeanne ? Je viens de l’avoir au t´el´ephone.
We have them for an evening meal tomorrow. Jeanne? I’ve just spoken to her on the phone.
Avoir de quoi + infinitive suggests having the necessary implements/tools to do something: Tu peux le contacter. Tu as de quoi ´ecrire. J’ai crev´e. Heureusement que j’ai de quoi r´eparer la crevaison.
You can contact him. You have all you need for writing. I’ve gotten a puncture. Fortunately, I have the tools to mend it.
Avoir l’air + adjective = to appear, to seem, to look. The adjective in this case may vary in agreement, either with the subject of avoir or with air, which is masculine. Some grammarians discern a fine difference in meaning between agreement and non-agreement, but generally speaking this difference is ignored. When referring to persons, here are the two possibilities: Cette dame a l’air douce/doux. Les filles ont l’air heureux/heureuses.
This lady seems gentle. The girls look happy.
But one can only say, and here there is agreement because of la force des choses: Elle a l’air enceinte.
She looks pregnant.
A female is pregnant. An air cannot be pregnant. When referring to things, both possibilities exist, but non-agreement is much more common: Cette maison a l’air d´elabr´e(e). Ces propositions ont l’air s´erieux/s´erieuses.
This house looks in a state of disrepair. These proposals look serious.
However, if air itself is followed by a complement, agreement is made with air: ` la fois La ville avait l’air tout a anim´e et d´esœuvr´e d’un dimanche. Les gens avaient l’air stupide que donne la surprise.
The town looked both lively and free and easy just as on a Sunday. People looked stupid, a result of surprise.
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` quelqu’un l’air: Similarly with the expression trouver a Je ne lui avais pas trouv´e l’air triste mais fatigu´e.
I hadn’t found her sad, but tired.
Two possibilities exist in different parts of a sentence, but non-agreement is preferable: Elle a l’air faux/fausse, mais elle est loyale.
She looks devious, but she is honest.
And logically: Si je n’ai pas l’air fatigu´e(e), c’est que je ne suis pas fatigu´ee.
If I don’t seem tired, it’s because I’m not tired.
Avoir beau + infinitive suggests to do something in vain: Ils ont beau se plaindre, personne ne les ´ecoute. J’ai beau leur demander de se taire, ¸ca continue.
They complain as much as they like, no one listens to them. I ask them in vain to keep quiet, they go on and on.
` + infinitive marks an obligation but carries less compulsion than Avoir a falloir or devoir: ` finir. J’ai un travail a ` faire / a ` faire une J’ai une visite a visite. ` nourrir. Il a sa famille a ` r´epondre ? Tu n’as rien a
I have some work to finish. I have to make a visit. He has a family to feed. Have you nothing to say?
N’avoir qu’` a = I/You/etc. only have to: Virginie n’a qu’` a m’avertir. Si tu ne peux pas lui faire visite, tu n’as qu’` a lui envoyer un texto / il n’y a qu’` a lui envoyer un texto.
Virginie only has to let me know. If you can’t go and see him, you only have to send him a text message.
In R1 language, the imperfect of n’avoir qu’` a is the equivalent of aurait dˆ u: a prendre le bus. Tu n’avais qu’` Franc¸oise n’avait qu’` a faire attention.
You ought to have caught the bus. Franc¸oise ought to have been more careful.
N’avoir (pas) de cesse que de = to be doing for evermore. This expression is of R3 style: Antoine n’a de cesse que de r´ep´eter la mˆeme histoire.
Antoine is forever repeating the same story.
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This expression can take the subjunctive even if the subjects are the same: Lucile n’aura (pas) de cesse qu’elle n’atteigne son but.
Lucile will keep trying until she reaches her goal.
Avoir lieu de / Il y a lieu de = to have grounds for: David a lieu de se plaindre. Il y a lieu de protester.
David has grounds for complaining. There are grounds for protesting.
Avoir is often used, and more naturally, where to be would easily occur in English: St´ephanie a les yeux bleus. Louis a le bras cass´e.
St´ephanie’s eyes are blue / St´ephanie has blue eyes. Louis’s arm is broken / Louis has a broken arm.
If insistence were required, ˆetre could be used: “C´eline a les yeux noisette.” “Mais non, les yeux de C´eline sont bleus.”
“C´eline has hazel eyes.” “No, C´eline’s eyes are blue.”
To ask in French: What’s wrong / the matter?, avoir is frequently used: Qu’est-ce que tu as ? Qu’est-ce qu’elle avait ? Qu’est-ce qu’il y a ?
What’s wrong with you? What was the matter with her? What’s wrong?
38.3 Idiomatic uses of eˆ tre Fortunately for foreign students of French, there is only one verb corresponding to the verb to be. Life becomes much more complicated in Italian and Spanish, which offer two possibilities (It: essere/stare; Sp: ser/estar) ˆtre can indicate belonging: E ` Valentin. Cettte maison est a ` qui est ce v´elo ? A ` moi. Le v´elo est a
This house is Valentin’s. Whose bicycle is this? The bicycle is mine.
Eˆtre can indicate activity or being involved in something: ` son travail. Ir`ene est a
Ir`ene is at work.
ˆtre can suggest a tendency towards something: E ` la pluie/neige. Le temps est a ` l’optimisme. L’heure est a ` la baisse/hausse. Les prix sont a
The weather is turning to rain/snow. Things are becoming optimistic. Prices are going down/up.
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ˆtre can express participation in something: E Sophie ne sera pas de la partie / de la fˆete.
Sophie won’t be there with us / at the party.
ˆtre can suggest support for or opposition to something: E S´ebastien est pour l’ind´ependance du Qu´ebec. Je ne suis pas pour. Elle est contre.
S´ebastien is for Quebec independence. I’m not for (it). She’s against (it).
In R3 language, il est (there is/are) has an archaic resonance: Il est des souvenirs remplis de tendresse. Il est des jours amers que je pr´ef`ere oublier.
There are memories filled with tenderness. There are bitter moments I prefer to forget.
Il n’est que de / Il suffit de = You only have to: Il n’est que de pr´eciser vos raisons.
You only have to clarify your reasons.
N’ˆetre pas sans savoir que / ne pas ignorer que = to be aware of: Vous n’ˆetes pas sans savoir que le gouvernement a d´ej` a pris certaines mesures. Ils ne sont pas sans savoir que le r´esultat des ´elections sera publi´e demain.
You are certainly aware that the government has already taken certain decisions. They must know that the result of the elections will be published tomorrow.
A common error here is n’ˆetre pas sans ignorer, which is the opposite of sans savoir. N’ˆetre plus / avoir cess´e d’exister = to be no more. This is used in a high register and euphemistically for to die: ˆge d’or n’est plus. Cet a Mon mari n’est plus.
This golden age is no more. My husband has died.
A contentious issue: c’est or ce sont – C’est des pommes vertes or Ce sont des pommes vertes? Much ink has been spilled over this subject. It would be best to simplify matters by arguing that C’est is of a lower register than ce sont. Both are found in writing. The use of the pronoun en with ˆetre suggests to have arrived at, or to be at a particular point:
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Where are we (in the chapter)? It’s all up with him / That’s my rest done for. That’s just too much / That takes the biscuit. It’s the same with this novel as with the other. It’s the same for you as for him. I got away with just a fright. I wasted all my effort. Where are you in your research? I am halfway there (often used figuratively). He doesn’t know where he is (with it). It’s nowhere near the same.
In a high register, and specifically literary language at that, ˆetre + en = s’en aller, and notably in the third-person singular, past historic: Notre h´ero¨ıne s’en fut au fleuve. Paul s’en fut chercher son fr`ere.
Our heroine repaired to the river. Paul went out to look for his brother.
Some miscellaneous features: Cela ´etant, je vous accorde un d´elai de deux heures Ainsi soit-il. On est le jeudi 9 mai. Toujours est-il que l’´equipe n’est ` la hauteur. pas a ` court d’argent / d’id´ees / Elle est a de souffle / de vivres. ` moi/toi, etc. de lire la C’est a premi`ere page. Je suis d’avis qu’Aur´elien s’en ira demain. Je suis d’avis qu’Aur´elien s’en aille demain.
That so, I’ll grant you a limit of two hours. So be it / Amen (with a biblical resonance). It’s Thursday May 9. The fact still remains that the team is not up to it. She’s short of money / ideas / breath / food. It’s for me/you, etc. to read the first page. I am of the opinion that Aur´elien will go tomorrow. I am of the opinion that Aur´elien should go tomorrow.
Note that faire, not ˆetre, is used in the following: Deux et deux font quatre.
Two and two are four.
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38.4 Idiomatic uses of faire For impersonal uses, see Chapter 39 on impersonal verbs. Fortunately, faire covers both to do and to make in English, two verbs that cause considerable uncertainty for foreign speakers of English. Although the letters ai produce the open e in almost all parts of faire, in (nous) faisons and faisant the sound is of a mute e. Faire can suggest carrying out the role of, to act as: Adrienne faisait celle qui n’entend pas. Le petit faisait le conducteur. Arrˆete de faire le con (R1).
Adrienne did not seem to hear. The child pretended to be the driver. Stop acting like an idiot.
There are quite a few expressions here: faire le malin (to show off ) / le mariole (to try to be smart) / l’imb´ecile / le malade / le mort (in all three cases = to pretend to be, although in the last there is the added idea of motionlessness). Se faire = to become: Louise s’est faite belle pour la fˆete. Les deux fr`eres se sont faits marins. Bientˆ ot, ils se sont faits vieux/conciliants. Il faut rentrer, il se fait tard. Avec la crise ´economique, l’argent se fait rare.
Louise dressed up for the party. The two brothers became sailors. They aged quickly / They soon became conciliatory. We ought to go home, it’s getting late. With the credit crunch, money is getting scarce.
Se faire + subjunctive = to happen (that): Comment se fait-il que vous soyez en retard ? Or with the indicative: Comment se fait-il que vous ˆetes en retard ?
How is it that you are late?
How is it that you are late?
` = to get used to. Se faire a ` leurs Les ´etudiants se sont faits a nouvelles chambres. Il faut s’y faire, coˆ ute que coˆ ute. ` ce Les deux filles se sont faites a travail. ` l’id´ee et Tu n’as qu’` a te faire a c’est simple.
The students have gotten used to their new rooms. You have to get used to it, at all costs. The two girls got used to their work. You only have to get used to the idea and it’s simple.
(Se) faire + infinitive = to have (something) done
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A Reference Grammar of French Mon p`ere va (se) faire construire une maison. Je ferai visiter le parc aux enfants / par les enfants. ` tes amis. J’ai fait visiter la ville a ` Il faut faire voir son int´erˆet a chacun. ` Mon fr`ere a fait traverser la rue a un vieillard. Tu as fait manger le petit, ch´eri ?
My father is going to have a house built. I’ll have the children visit the park. I showed your friends the town. You have to let each one see where his interest lies. My brother helped an old man to cross the road. Have you fed the baby, dear?
The translations into English of the six sentences above illustrate how, very often, faire does not correspond to to do/make in the sense of to force/oblige. The last sentence, literally translated, would be: Have you made the baby eat, dear?; this would suggest to force-feed, which in French could be alimenter de force, as with a recalcitrant prisoner. Se faire + infinitive = to get + past participle; this construction often, but not always, has a negative sense, although this does not necessarily suggest an active idea, far from it: Le chien s’est fait ´ecraser. Fais gaffe, tu vas te faire tuer/engueuler. Qu’est-ce qu’il y a comme jeunes qui se font poignarder en pleine rue. Mon fr`ere s’est fait arracher une dent. Je vais me faire couper les cheveux.
The dog got run over. Careful, you’ll get yourself killed / you’ll be told off. There are lots of young people who get stabbed right in the street. My brother had a tooth out. I’m going to get my hair cut.
Similarly with a negative connotation: se faire agresser (to get mugged), se faire tabasser (to get beaten up), se faire gronder (to be scolded), se faire arrˆeter, se faire voler, se faire violer (to be raped), se faire avoir (to be tricked). And with a neutral or positive connotation: se faire op´erer, se faire ob´eir, se faire connaˆıtre, se faire inviter. Note the use of the preposition de in the following construction: Ses parents ont fait une auberge de leur maison. Tu vas faire de tes souvenirs un livre ? Papa a fait une lanterne magique de trois ampoules.
His parents turned their house into an inn. Are you going to make a book of your memories? Pop made a magic lantern with three bulbs.
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The equivalent of to make + adjective requires rendre, not faire: Le maire a rendu publics les accords entre patronat et ouvriers. Les ´etudes philosophiques l’ont rendue trop sceptique. Cette d´ecision l’a rendue folle de rage.
The mayor made public the agreement between employers and the workforce. Philosophical studies made her too skeptical. This decision made her mad with anger.
As with English to do/have, faire replaces a verb that would need to be repeated: La´etitia r´epondit comme les autres l’auraient fait. ´milie chante comme le fait une E cantatrice d’op´era. C’est sensationnel que notre ´equipe l’ait emport´e comme ils l’ont fait.
La´etitia replied as the others would have done. ´milie sings as does an opera singer. E It’s wonderful that our team won as they did.
But faire cannot replace the verbs avoir and ˆetre in the following cases: Christophe a eu l’audace, comme tu l’as eue autrefois, de m’insulter. Aur´elien est distrait comme tu l’es.
Christophe had the audacity, as you did once, to insult me. Aur´elien is absentminded like you.
Neither can devoir, falloir, pouvoir, savoir or vouloir be replaced when they are preceded by le: Fr´ed´eric devait lui aussi partir, comme nous le devions. ˆtre, Jeanne voulait aller au th´ea comme je le voulais. J’ai su r´egler le probl`eme, comme ils l’ont pu.
Fr´ed´eric had to leave as well, as we had to. Jeanne wanted to go to the theater, as I wanted to. I was able to sort out the problem, as they could.
There is no French equivalent when the substitute verb is stressed, as in English: “David se d´efend bien aux ´echecs.” “Oui, en effet.” “‘Audrey nage bien.” “Eh oui.” “Aur´elien n’appr´ecie pas notre vin.” “Mais si.”
“David is good at chess.” “Yes, he is.” “Audrey swims well.” “She sure does.” “Aur´elien doesn’t appreciate our wine.” “Of course he does.”
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The reflexive pronoun after faire can be either included or excluded: Elle l’a fait asseoir / s’asseoir. Je l’ai fait lever / se lever.
She sat him down. I had him stand up.
The reflexive construction suggests more courtesy and is of a higher register than the non-reflexive form. Also note the difference in meaning between Il la fit s’arrˆeter (He made her stop) and Il la fit arrˆeter (He had her arrested). Faire with an adjective or noun can give the idea of appearance: C ¸ a fait tr`es joli. ˆge. Elle fait vieille pour son a Ces meubles font riche. Cela fait province. Cela fait tr`es vieille dame.
That looks nice. She looks old for her age. This furniture gives the impression of wealth. It reminds you of the provinces. She looks like a very old lady.
Ne faire que is an ambiguous expression, and one relies on the context to interpret its meaning: Denoting repetition or continuity: Lucile ne fait que dire toujours la mˆeme chose.
Lucile only ever says the same thing.
Denoting limitation: Pierre ne fait que r´ep´eter ce qu’on lui a dit. Pierre ne fait qu’ob´eir. Pierre ne fait que jouer.
Pierre only repeats what is said to him. Pierre merely obeys. All Pierre does is play.
Ne faire que de is used with the idea of to have just: Je ne fais que d’arriver, laisse-moi r´efl´echir un peu.
I have only just arrived. Let me think for a moment.
An opposition is established with ne pas faire que: Papa ne fait pas que te respecter. Il t’admire.
Pop not only respects you. He admires you.
Ne pouvoir faire que suggests not to be able to bring about (by an intervention, for instance). The subjunctive is normal here: Je ne puis faire que Jeanne ne soit m´econtente. Je ne puis faire que mon fils soit heureux.
I can’t persuade Jeanne not to be unhappy. I can’t bring it about so that my son is happy (i.e., make my son happy).
Ne faire qu’un = to be one/united: Pierre et Paul / Marie et Louise ne font qu’un.
Pierre and Paul / Marie and Louise are of the same mind.
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Faire cas de / faire grand cas de / faire peu de cas de = to attach importance to / great / little importance to: Le critique fait cas du style raffin´e de l’auteure. Philippe a fait grand cas de son avancement. Ma coll`egue a fait peu de cas de ma participation.
The critic takes into account the author’s refined style. Philippe made a big thing of his promotion. My colleague attached little importance to my participation.
Also: ne faire aucun cas de = to have no respect/esteem/etc. for: Mes amis ne font aucun cas de ma r´eussite.
My friends showed no interest in my success.
Ne pas s’en faire = not to worry about: Il y a trop de travail, mais le directeur ne s’en fait pas. Ne t’en fais pas, je m’en occupe.
There is too much work, but the manager doesn’t worry. Don’t worry, I’ll deal with it.
Faire may be used intransitively: ` faire (to have a lot to do); des Laisse-moi faire (Let me do it my way); avoir fort a fac¸ons de faire (ways of acting/dealing); Fais comme tu veux (Do as you wish); Je fais de mon mieux (I do my best). Faire en sorte que = to act in such a way that: With the indicative, which points to certainty: ` Je fais en sorte que j’arriverai a l’heure.
I’ll see to it that I’m on time.
With the subjunctive: Faites en sorte qu’on soit content de vous.
Act in such a way that we’ll be satisfied with you.
` faire = to have a lot to do: Avoir fort a ` faire pour le Tu auras fort a convaincre.
You will need to work hard to convince him.
N’en faire qu’` a sa tˆete = to do just as you please (without reference to others): Tu peux lui sugg´erer cette solution, mais il n’en fera qu’` a sa tˆete.
You can suggest this solution to him, but he will only go his own way.
Faire is used in a high register, often in a literary context, and in the third person (he/she replied), but this construction does not usually involve indirect objects such as lui/leur: “Je viendrai,” fit-il.
“I’ll come,” he said.
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“Une seconde, fit-it, accordez-moi une seconde” (Green 1936, p. 246); “oh ! fit-il, scandalis´e” (Green 1936, p. 248). Below is a miscellaneous collection of expressions with faire: Faire son ˆtre / droit / sa m´edecine; faire des math´ematiques / du grec / une licence / du th´ea du sport / de l’escrime (fencing); faire de l’essence / le plein (of gas/petrol); faire ` l’heure / du cent a ` l’heure; faire le Canada (to do Canada); cent kilom`etres a ` sa guise / a ` sa mani`ere (to do as you please); faire ses besoins (to go to the faire a bathroom /restroom); Mon fr`ere a eu une bonne note et j’en ai fait autant (My brother had a good mark and I did the same); Elle fait jeune (She looks young); faire de la temp´erature (to have a temperature); faire une vilaine grippe (awful flu) / un infarctus (heart attack) / une pleur´esie; Ce mur fait trois m`etres de haut; Cet homme fait un m`etre quatre-vingt-cinq; se faire du mauvais sang / de la bile (to get upset / to worry); se faire fort de (R3; to feel confident about: Je me fais fort de la convaincre); Il faisait nuit/jour (It was night/daytime). Two expressions involving the present participle: ce faisant (R3) = having done this; chemin faisant = on the way. Many expressions are constructed thus: faire + noun with no intervening ` (to face up to / to be opposite); article: faire attention (to take care); faire face a ` (to make [someone] feel ashamed); faire gaffe (R1 = to be careful); faire honte a ` (to disgust); faire peur a ` (to frighten); faire plaisir a ` (to please / faire horreur a ` (to beckon); faire tort a ` (to do wrong to). give pleasure to); faire signe a
38.5 Idiomatic uses of prendre Some general uses of prendre + noun that sometimes correspond to the English to take: On prend un objet / de l’argent / une habitude / une racl´ee (a beating) / sa temp´erature / un rem`ede / une route / la voiture / le chemin de fer / le train / le bateau / l’avion / le d´epart / la rel`eve (to take over, i.e., from someone) / l’initiative / le large (to go out into the open sea) / la porte / des nouvelles / ses aises (to take it easy) / de l’ˆ age (to get older) / de l’embonpoint (to get fatter / to put on weight) / du poids / sa retraite. Some expressions of greater complication than immediately above: prendre quelqu’un comme otage; prendre en otage; prendre au pi`ege; prendre la main dans le sac (to catch red-handed); prendre au d´epourvu (to catch ` t´emoin (to call as a witness); prendre a ` partie (to accuse / unawares); prendre a ` tel endroit (to have a source in a certain place: to attack); prendre sa source a of a river); prendre quelque chose du bon cˆot´e (in a good-humored way / on the bright side) / du mauvais cˆot´e (on the bad side); prendre en bonne/mauvaise part (to take in good/bad part); prendre de haut (to take in an arrogant way); ` prendre ou a ` laisser (Take it or leave it); a ` tout prendre (all in all). C’est a
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Prendre refers to something that happens to someone: La fi`evre l’a prise/reprise / lui a pris/repris. Une faiblesse lui a pris. Qu’est-ce qui lui a pris ?
The fever came over her (again). He suddenly felt weak. What’s come over him/her?
Used impersonally: Il lui a pris une rage de dents. Il me prend une envie de voyager.
He suddenly got toothache. I feel like traveling.
Prendre + infinitive: L’id´ee lui a pris de venir nous voir.
He got the idea to come to see us.
Prendre is used of a liquid that solidifies, and here avoir is used for action and ˆetre for state: La rivi`ere a pris cette nuit. The river froze last night. Le fleuve est enti`erement pris. The river is entirely frozen. La colle prend. The glue is hardening. L’huile est prise. The oil has hardened/thickened. La cr`eme a pris au fond de la The cream has thickened in the casserole. saucepan. ` prendre : on The ice has hardened: we’ll soon be La glace commence a pourra bientˆ ot aller patiner sur able to go and skate on the lake. le lac. The same idea applies to plants which take hold in the ground: Les pˆechers prennent mal ici. Cette bouture a pris.
The peach trees don’t take root here (in the soil). This cutting has taken well.
Similarly, used figuratively: Le vaccin a pris. La plaisanterie / Le mensonge a pris.
The vaccine has taken well / worked / is working. The joke/lie worked.
Prendre is used in the sense of taking someone to be: Tu me prends pour un imb´ecile ? Il se prend pour un po`ete. Pour qui se prend-il ?
You take me for an imbecile? He thinks he’s a poet. Who does he think he is?
Prendre has the value of r´eussir = to succeed in some contexts: Ce mode de communication This method of communication that is qu’est Internet a fini par Internet has ended up taking well. prendre.
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Prendre may be used of a fire: Le feu a pris dans le bois. Le feu ne prend pas. Il y a trop de vent.
The fire started in the wood. The fire’s not lighting. There’s too much wind.
` = to get caught in: Se prendre a Sa robe s’est prise aux ´epines. ` une Son chapeau s’est pris a branche.
Her dress got caught in the thorns. His hat got caught on/in a branch.
` = to set about (doing something): Se prendre a Comment faut-il s’y prendre ? Marie s’y est mal prise pour gagner la partie.
How do you set about (doing) it? Marie started badly to win the game.
` = to become interested in / attracted by: Se prendre a Les trois filles se sont prises au jeu.
The three girls got interested in the game.
` = to accuse, to incriminate: S’en prendre a ` moi comme si On s’en prend a j’´etais coupable. Mon p`ere s’est pris au voisin qui fait trop de bruit. Tu ne pourrais t’en prendre qu’` a toi-mˆeme.
I am accused as if I were guilty. My father accused the neighbor who makes too much noise. You can only blame yourself.
Prendre pour = to take as: prendre pour ´epouse/´epoux (to take as a husband/wife); prendre pour arbitre/associ´e; prendre une personne pour une autre. Prendre sur soi = to assume responsibility: Nous prendrons sur nous votre faute.
We take the responsibility for your error.
` = to take part in: Prendre part a ` la fˆete. Nous prendrons part a
We’ll come to the party.
38.6 Some remarks, with examples, on the influence of English in the linguistic processes of Quebec French The English of the United States and Canada is clearly exerting a marked effect on the French of Quebec. The linguistically aware feel outrage and see in this process a deleterious invasion of essentially foreign words and expressions that are damaging the warp and woof of the purity of the French language, especially since, in numerous ways, the French of Quebec has retained much of the flavor of former times. The French of Quebec
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sometimes recalls, in pronunciation and vocabulary, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries of metropolitan France. We are witnessing a strange tension between traditionalism and the need to modernize the French language (e.g., auteur/docteur > auteure/docteure) while, at the same time, this exposure to English is provoking indignation. A language has to evolve to avoid ossification, witness the now accepted r´ealiser, which is a calque from the English in the sense of to understand, and even words like the noun forcing, a creation that has been borrowed from English but does not exist in English with this meaning. There follows a list of expressions that are currently in use in Quebec but are considered fautives because they are literal translations of the English. The authors do not claim to recommend any of these turns of phrase, but merely offer them for what they are. A “purer” French expression, or expressions, is/are placed alongside the Anglicism. Bear in mind that the terms in this list are merely representative of an ever-growing catalog of terms that, according to many observers, are plaguing the French language: Faulty/incorrect expression aller en appel aller en ´elections aller en gr`eve aller sous presse faire application faire du sens faire sa part prendre action prendre des proc´edures prendre la parole de quelqu’un prendre le vote prendre offense prendre place prendre un cours prendre une chance prendre une marche
More acceptable expression en appeler, faire appel d´eclencher des ´elections faire la gr`eve mettre sous presse ` un emploi / poser sa postuler a candidature avoir du sens apporter sa contribution / collaborer agir / intervenir / passer aux actes poursuivre (en justice) ` la parole de quelqu’un se fier a proc´eder au scrutin se froisser / se vexer avoir lieu / se passer / se tenir ` un suivre un cours / s’inscrire a cours courir le risque / prendre le risque se promener / faire un tour
39 Impersonal verbs / Les verbes impersonnels The following passage centers on a spring visit to Prague, capital of Bohemia and the Czech Republic. We pass from the freezing temperatures of March to the hurly-burly of downtown Prague and then on to some cultural references. Emphasis is placed on impersonal verbs, which are highlighted. Note that these verbs are introduced by il or ¸ca, the latter being much more informal. Some translations are provided, and Czech is occasionally used for local color. ` Prague Un printemps a Nous avons appr´eci´e la Boh`eme. Il ne s’agit ni de l’op´era en quatre actes de Puccini ni de la chanson « La Boh`eme » interpr´et´ee par Charles Aznavour, mais de la province de Boh`eme. Prague est la capitale de cette province situ´ee en Europe centrale. Il y a dix ans, Prague ´etait nomm´ee ` Prague, par capitale europ´eenne de la culture. Lors de notre s´ejour a moments, il soufflait un vent terrible. Il faisait un froid de canard [It was bitterly cold]. Il ´etait sur le point de neiger. Heureusement, il n’a pas neig´e mais il grˆelait et il gelait. Il bruinait, il pluviotait ou il ` grosses gouttes. Il faisait moins de cinq degr´ pleuvait a es, et la nuit il faisait encore plus froid. Comme dit le proverbe : apr`es la pluie, le beau temps. Il ´etait recommand´e de ne pas emprunter l’autoroute pour se rendre ` Prague pendant la dur´ee des travaux. Et les Pragois ? C a ¸ a a roul´ e toute la nuit [There was traffic all night] ! Il faisait nuit noire ! C ¸ a grouillait le soir dans la ville [The city was heaving with people]. C ¸ a sentait bon lorsqu’on s’approchait des restaurants. C ¸ a picolait [People were drinking away] ! C ¸ a braillait [People were hollering] ! C ¸ a bavardait ! C ¸a racontait des histoires. En fait nous ne comprenions pas le tch`eque. La seule chose que nous savions dire c’´etait Dobr´y den, c’est-` a-dire: Bonjour ! Il n’y avait pas l` a de quoi fouetter un chat [But it’s no big deal]. Les Tch`eques aiment recevoir et faire la fˆete. On chantait souvent avec entrain la fameuse comptine [nursery rhyme] : « Il pleut, il mouille, ` la grenouille, Il pleut, il fait beau temps, C’est la fˆete au C’est la fˆete a paysan. »
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Le centre de la capitale tch`eque est un lieu m´emorable de l’histoire de la Boh`eme. La vieille ville est magnifique. Il se passe des ´ ev´ enements importants dans le chˆ ateau de Prague (Hradˇcany), r´esidence du pr´esident de la R´epublique tch`eque. Ce chˆ ateau royal est d’une grandeur majestueuse. Le Pont Charles (Karl˚ uv most) est le symbole embl´ematique [iconic] de Prague. Tout au long du pont que l’on traversait en flˆ anant pour rejoindre la vieille ville, Star´e Mˇesto, des statues baroques trˆ onaient. Parmi les plus c´el`ebres, je me souviens de celle du patron de la nation tch`eque, Saint Venceslas. Il est d’autres monuments dont je pourrais recommander la visite. Le quartier juif de Prague est un endroit qu’il vaut la peine de visiter avec ses synagogues et son myst´erieux cimeti`ere juif. Les mus´ees des c´el`ebres compositeurs Bedˇrich Smetana ´k m´eritent le d´etour. Il en est de mˆ et Anton´ın Dvoˇra eme pour la maison natale de Franz Kafka. Il suffit de lire quelques romans de ce c´el`ebre ´ecrivain tch`eque pour se rendre compte d’une situation kafka¨ıennne qui traduit une complexit´e extrˆeme. Il s’agit souvent d’une atmosph`ere absurde, inqui´etante et cauchemardesque. Il ne faut pas oublier le roman satirique de Jaroslav Haˇsek, Le bon soldat ˇSvejk, qui tourne en d´erision l’esprit militaire. La pr´esence permanente de Jaroslav Haˇsek et de sa cr´eation romanesque est assur´ee par le restaurant Hostinec U Kalicha que l’auteur fr´equentait avec ses amis, et qu’il convient de visiter pour se restaurer.
Impersonal verbs have neither subject nor object. Whatever they represent as being or as going on, nothing is suggested as taking any active part in it. There are some examples of such verbs in English, and French, like Spanish and Italian, has more that are either always or occasionally used. The pronoun it is a mere form of expression in English, but it does not represent the actor. Interestingly and helpfully, the English it corresponds to the French il. This use of il indicates clearly that impersonal verbs are only used in the third-person singular, and should be distinguished from verbs related to things (e.g., consister) or animals (e.g., coasser) which rarely appear outside the third-person singular and plural, unless an author has recourse to a metaphoric use. The verbs in question here are sometimes associated with weather or natural phenomena, witness the witticism displayed by Toto, the typical lad in a French elementary/primary school who plays with the ambiguity of the word temps (weather and tenses): “Le maˆıtre demande ` Toto de lui conjuguer le verbe savoir a ` tous les temps. Toto r´epond: Je sais a qu’il neige. Je sais qu’il pleut. Je sais qu’il g`ele. Je sais qu’il tonne. Je sais qu’il vente, etc.” There follows a list of impersonal verbs related to the weather: Il bruine/bruinait/bruinera. If floconne / floconnait / floconnera.
It drizzles / is drizzling / was drizzling / will drizzle. It snows / is snowing / was snowing / will snow.
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Il flotte/flottait/flottera (R1). Il g`ele/gelait/g`elera. Il grˆele/grˆelait/grˆelera. Il d´eg`ele/d´egelait/d´eg`elera. Il mouille/mouillait/mouillera (R1). Il neige/neigeait/neigera. Il pleut/pleuvait/pleuvra. Il pleuviote/pleuviotait/ pleuviotera. Il vente/ventait/ventera.
It rains / is raining / was raining / will rain. It freezes / is freezing / was freezing / will freeze. It hails / is hailing / was hailing / will hail. It thaws / is thawing / was thawing / will thaw. It rains / is raining / was raining / will rain. It snows / is snowing / was snowing / will snow. It rains / is raining / was raining / will rain. It drizzles / is drizzling / was drizzling / will drizzle. It is windy / was windy / will be windy.
Three remarks flow from this: 1. In most cases, ¸ca can replace il in R1 language. Indeed, sometimes, one would only hear ¸ca: ¸ca bruine, ¸ca caille (it’s freezing; il would not be used here), ¸ca chauffe (it’s getting hot; il would not be used here), ¸ca cogne (the sun is strong; il would not be used here), ¸ca g`ele, ¸ca grˆele, ¸ca mouille (il would not be used here), ¸ca pleuviote / pluviote, ¸ca souffle (it’s very windy; il would not be used here), ¸ca tape ( = ¸ca cogne), ¸ca tempˆete (it’s blowing a gale; il would not be used here). One would only say il floconne, however. 2. It is most unlikely that certain tenses of the above would be used. The future of bruiner, flotter, mouiller, pleuvioter/pluvioter fall into this category while g`elera, grˆelera and pleuvra are in common use. 3. Semi-auxiliary verbs can precede these verbs of weather which then assume an infinitive form, and the construction remains essentially ` pleuvoir; Il devrait the same: Il va pleuvoir; Il vient de pleuvoir; Il commence a pleuvoir; Il semblait pleuvoir; Il a cess´e de pleuvoir; Il risque de pleuvoir. These impersonal verbs may be followed by a real subject, but the verb remains in the singular: Il pleut de grosses gouttes; Il pleut des cordes / des hallebardes (It is pouring down); Il neigeait de gros flocons; Il neigeait de fines paillettes; Il soufflait un vent terrible / une bise cinglante; Il ne pousse rien dans le d´esert; Il tombait une neige fine. This construction may also be construed metaphorically, but here the style is R3 and very literary and poetic. Speaking of Napoleon who sent him into exile, Hugo writes: Il pleut des livres et des journaux partout; and the same author writes: Il neige des feuilles. A contemporary of Hugo, Musset, writes: Il pleut des guitares et des messages secrets.
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Faire + adjective is used for the weather, where English uses is: Il fait/faisait/fera beau. Il fait/faisait/fera bon. Il fait/faisait/fera ´etouffant. Il fait/faisait/fera frais. Il fait/faisait/fera/froid. Il fait/faisait/fera doux. Il fait/faisait/fera chaud. Il fait/faisait/fera lourd. Il fait/faisait/fera noir. Il fait/faisait/fera sombre. Il fait/faisait/fera vilain. Il fait/faisait/fera sec. Il fait/faisait/fera humide. Il fait 15 degr´es.
It is / was / will be fine weather. It is / was / will be pleasant weather. It is / was / will be stifling. It feels / felt / will feel fresh. It is / was / will be cold. It is / was / will be pleasant. It is / was / will be hot. It is / was / will be sultry. It is / was / will be dark. It is / was / will be gloomy. The weather is / was / will be awful. It is / was / will be dry. It is / was / will be wet/damp/humid. It is fifteen degrees.
As with avoir (see Chapter 38), if the noun is qualified in any way, the indefinite article is required: Il faisait une chaleur torride. Il faisait un froid de canard. Il faisait un temps splendide.
It was desperately hot. It was intensely cold. It was splendid weather.
In R1 language, the adjective or adjectival expression may be omitted, but with rising intonation. The effect is the same: Il faisait une chaleur / un froid . . . Note that one does not use temps in combination with faire as in English. Say: Il fait beau, as indicated above. Faire + noun is also used for the weather: Il fait du soleil / du verglas (icy) / du vent / de la pluie / du brouillard / de l’orage / des ´eclairs / un temps de chien / un temps ´epouvantable / clair de lune / grand soleil. Faire is also used for jour and nuit: Il fait nuit / jour = It is night / dark / day(time); Il fait nuit noire; Il faisait noir comme dans un four = It was as black as pitch. Il est is also used for expressions of time (c’est is of a lower register): To indicate a particular moment: Il/C’est midi/minuit/tˆot/tard; Il/C’est sept heures. L`eve-toi ! To indicate an obligation: Il est temps de partir pour l’a´eroport / Il est temps qu’on parte pour l’a´eroport; Il est l’heure de coucher les enfants/que les enfants se couchent. Il y a + noun or pronoun is a common impersonal construction: E´coute ! ` la porte; Il y avait vraiment beaucoup de monde a ` la plage; Il y a Il y a quelqu’un a du soleil aujourd’hui; Tu as l’air triste. Qu’est-ce qu’il y a ? Il y a is used for ago and distance: J’ai rencontr´e L´ea il y a dix ans au cours d’un voyage en Tha¨ılande; Il y a facilement cinq mille kilom`etres entre les cˆotes est
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et ouest des USA. In the spoken language, il y a can be reduced to y a: Y avait rien dans l’armoire; Y a des poires dans la cuisine ? The literary equivalent of il y a is il est: Il est des parfums frais dans le jardin; Il est d’autres monuments dont je pourrais recommander la visite; Il fut un temps o` u les soldats vogageaient avec leurs familles; Il ´etait une fois une princesse . . . (Once upon a time . . . ). ` + infinitive has roughly the idea of can, or suggests availability: Il Il y a a ` parier que St´ephanie r´eussira; Il y a a ` boire et a ` manger; Il n’y a qu’` yaa a parler et on t’ob´eira. Notice also the expression il y a de quoi = There are the facilities / is the wherewithal (to do something): Il y a de quoi manger dans le frigo; Il n’y a pas l` a de quoi fouetter un chat (It’s no big deal). Il faut = it is necessary, I/you/he/she, etc. have to can be: followed by an infinitive: Il faut/fallait/faudra venir ce soir; followed by a noun: Il faut un permis de conduire pour conduire une voiture; followed by a subordinate clause with que + subjunctive: Il faut que tout soit prˆet ce week-end; Il faudra que tu reviennes avant ce soir. The reflexive verb s’agir = to be a question of is very common: to point to a subject or theme: Dans La peste de Camus, il s’agit d’une interminable lutte contre la souffrance; to express advice or an obligation (= il faut): Apr`es tant de discussions, il s’agit de prendre une d´ecision; Il s’agissait de savoir si tu peux r´eussir ton examen; Il s’agit que tu fasses tes devoirs tout de suite. Although the subject can only ever be il, a present participle is also possible: S’agissant de son ` la maison; and there is no reason retour, je lui ai dit que je ne serais pas a why the infinitive could not be used, notwithstanding resistance from some grammarians: Il doit s’agir d’affaires importantes dans cette r´eunion; Il va s’agir d’ˆetre prudent; Il semblait s’agir de brumes matinales. Il est + adjective is frequently used (in R1 language, one very often hears C’est + adjective): Il est + adjective + de + infinitive: Il est normal/important/imp´eratif d’avoir ses ` cette question; Il est + adjective + papiers en r`egle; C’est difficile de r´epondre a que: Il/C’´etait ´evident que l’enfant pleurait parce qu’elle avait mal; Il/C’est normal que tu souffres apr`es une telle chute. Verbs + que + indicative or subjunctive (the choice of the mood depends upon the meaning of the verb): il importe / paraˆıt / arrive / semble / vaut mieux / se peut / suffit que: Indicative: Il paraˆıt que le vin sera excellent cette ann´ee; Il me semble que tu as maigri Subjunctive with arriver, often with a present or future idea, but much less in the past, since uncertainty is suggested: Il arrive qu’on puisse patiner sur le lac/que mon p`ere parte avant moi; Il semble que nos amis soient d´ej` a partis
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Il importe / vaut mieux / suffit always take a subjunctive, and not the indicative, although an infinitive is possible: Il importe que Jean vienne ce soir / Peu importe que Jean vienne ce soir; Il vaut mieux que tu le fasses maintenant / Il vaut mieux le faire maintenant; Il suffit que tu lises l’introduction / Il suffit de lire l’introduction; Il importe d’envoyer le ch`eque d`es que possible. Mieux vaut may replace il vaut mieux: Mieux vaut pr´eparer le repas tout de suite. Aller de soi, convenir, d´ependre, servir and tenir also have impersonal possibilities, and again the indicative or subjunctive would be used according to meaning: Il va de soi (It goes without saying) que l’auteur ´evite cette question brˆ ulante; Il convient que tu le lui dises tout de suite; Il a ´et´e convenu que les ouvriers se mettent en gr`eve; Il a ´et´e convenu de se mettre en gr`eve; Il n’a pas d´ependu de moi ` quoi me sert-il que je paie tout de suite ? Il ne tient que l’affaire r´eussisse ou ´echoue; A plus qu’au capitaine de se prononcer sur l’´ev´enement (It only remains for). Impersonal verbs can be followed by a “real subject” (see also above for a similar application with respect to the weather); the real subject is the subject placed after the verb. The impersonal construction lends less importance to the subject and insists on the verb: Il reste quelques places dans le train de 14 heures (= Quelques places restent); Il me manque cinq euros pour acheter ce livre (= Cinq euros me manquent); Il suffit de quelques minutes pour faire cuire ce plat surgel´e (= Quelques minutes suffisent); En Europe il naˆıt moins d’enfants qu’au dix-neuvi`eme si`ecle (= Moins d’enfants naissent); Il nage une pomme de terre dans la sauce (= une pomme de terre nage); Il m’est arriv´e un accident (= Un accident m’est arriv´e); Il s’y ajoutait d’autres griefs (= D’autres griefs s’y ajoutaient); Il sortait du pus de la plaie (= Du pus sortait de la plaie); Il existait entre eux une grande tendresse (= Une grande tendresse existait entre eux); Il se fit un bruit de bottes sur ` rien d’essayer de la le trottoir (= Un bruit de bottes se fit sur le trottoir); Il ne sert a ` rien). convaincre (= Essayer de la convaincre ne sert a Constructions with a verb in the passive or reflexive form are characteristic of administrative or newspaper language: Il est rappel´e qu’il est interdit de fumer; Il a ´et´e d´ecid´e de limiter la vitesse sur les routes (= On a d´ecid´e de); Il est recommand´e de ne pas emprunter l’autoroute A10 pendant la dur´ee des travaux (= On recommande de); Il a ´et´e prouv´e que le tabac cause de nombreux cancers (= On a prouv´e que); Il est ´ecrit devant la barri`ere : “Entr´ee interdite / D´efense d’entrer”; Selon qu’il est ´ecrit dans la Bible, tu ne commettras pas . . . ; Il est g´en´eralement admis qu’une bourse est n´ecessaire pour l’´etudiant pauvre; Il s’est produit une explosion dans une usine de produits chimiques (= Une explosion s’est produite); Il se passe des ´ev´enements importants (= Des ´ev´enements importants se passent); Il se faisait un grand tapage (= Un grand tapage se faisait); Il se fait une nouvelle estimation du nombre d’habitants (= Une nouvelle estimation se fait). Notice that the impersonal form of the verb does not agree with the subject. Many other verbs are used impersonally when preceded by ¸ca: C ¸a sentait l’ail / la fum´ee / le feu; C ¸a brˆ ule depuis deux jours. This extremely widespread
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and colloquial use of ¸ca may be applied in two very specific ways which can overlap. It suggests intensity and/or lots of people: C ¸a puait l` a-dedans; C ¸a schlingue (R1 = It stinks / pongs); C ¸a va barder ! (It’s going to be tough! / Watch out!); C ¸a a roul´e toute la nuit (There was a lot of traffic all night); C ¸a grouillait (There were lots of people; if this expression were used of insects, for instance, it would be more standard R2, to swarm); C ¸a picolait (Lots of people were drinking a lot / knocking it back). Also: C ¸a braillait / bavardait/racontait des histoires; of plants one could say: C ¸a poussait partout; of a strong sun: C ¸a cogne; of time or a person on a bike: C ¸a file; of people snoring: C ¸a ronflait; and so on. The intensity increases with the expression Qu’est-ce que ¸ca, as in Qu’est-ce que ¸ca a roul´e/picol´e/bavard´e/ronfl´e and so on. C’est + noun + de or que also has an impersonal application: C’est un outrage aux mœurs que de d´ef´equer en pleine rue; C’est votre droit de vous taire; C’est mon devoir de parler; C’est un tr´esor que la sant´e.
40 Verbs of perception + infinitive or a subordinate clause / Les verbes de perception + infinitif ou une proposition subordonn´ee The first two paragraphs of the following passage describe the glories of Norwegian natural beauty, as experienced by passengers on a cruise liner (croisi´eristes). The third concentrates on the social activities of the Norwegians. Note how verbs of perception may be followed by an infinitive or a subordinate clause introduced by qui. Much less common would be the use of the gerund as in English. Note also that the infinitive could follow the verb of perception immediately. The first sentence may be construed as on ne voit pas se coucher le soleil. Equally, the first sentence of the second paragraph could be written aiment observer changer de couleur les eaux glaciales. Furthermore, in the last sentence of the second paragraph, there are two consecutive infinitives following imaginait. The important elements are highlighted in bold. Some translations are given. Les fjords de Norv`ege Dans certaines r´egions de Norv`ege on ne voit pas le soleil se coucher. Nous contemplions avec ´etonnement le soleil de minuit qui ne finissait pas de rayonner dans les r´egions polaires. Les fjords font ´egalement partie du paysage norv´egien. On entrevoyait [glimpsed] au loin les cˆ otes sauvages scandinaves qui se dessinaient [stood out]. On entendait les oiseaux de mer percer des cris stridents et tournoyer [wheel around] au-dessus de nos tˆetes. La nature occupe une place importante dans la vie des Norv´egiens. ` la belle saison, les touristes aiment observer les eaux glaciales A ` tel moment d’un vert transparent et lumineux, changer de couleur, a ` un autre moment d’un beau bleu clair. Un cadre exceptionnel et a unique marque avec admiration les croisi´eristes dont nous faisions partie. Nous ´ecoutions chanter les oiseaux. Nous imaginions les fjords qui ` l’´epoque des glaciers polaires. surplombaient [overhung] le paysage a Les paysages norv´egiens se voient appr´ ecier en toute s´er´enit´e. Ils sont d’une beaut´e ´epoustouflante [staggering]. Nous voyions avec un œil nouveau les cˆ otes rocheuses se profiler. On regardait avec curiosit´e s’animer les villages de pˆecheurs. On imaginait entendre jouer Peer
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Gynt, musique de sc`ene de Edvard Grieg qui accompagne la pi`ece de ˆtre de Ibsen du mˆeme nom. th´ea Nous sentions un d´elicieux arˆ ome de caf´e qui chatouillait notre ` savourer des sp´ecialit´es odorat. Nous avions pass´e la soir´ee a ` base de poisson frais, a `´ norv´egiennes a ecouter un groupe folklorique ` les voir danser dans leur costume traditionnorv´egien chanter, et a nel appel´e le « bunad ». On pouvait apercevoir au loin les magnifiques couleurs de cette tenue traditionnelle se m´ elanger entre-elles. Les Norv´egiens, lors de c´er´emonies, comme le baptˆeme, le mariage ou d’autres grandes occasions, aiment voir leurs concitoyens se parer [embellish themselves] de leur costume local. Notre bain culturel en Norv`ege a ´eveill´e au plus profond de nous des sensations agr´eables et inoubliables.
A certain number of verbs, essentially those expressing feelings or sensations, are frequently followed by an infinitive which performs the function of a direct complement. The following infinitive normally has a direct object, but not always, as would be the case of an impersonal verb. Other features to bear in mind are register (indicated in the examples below) and the possible use of a subordinate clause which can, in many instances, replace the infinitive, or modify the word order.
40.1 Verbs of seeing: contempler, entrevoir, observer, regarder, voir ` contempler J’ai pass´e le soir a ` tournoyer les oiseaux (R3) / a contempler les oiseaux ` contempler les tournoyer / a oiseaux qui tournoyaient au ciel. Elle entrevit sortir l’animal de la brume (R3) / l’animal sortir de la brume / l’animal qui sortait de la brume. Les touristes observaient dormir le lion (R3) / observaient le lion dormir / observaient le lion qui dormait. Elle regardait travailler les ouvriers (R3) / les ouvriers travailler / les ouvriers qui travaillaient. Nous voyions courir les enfants (R3) / les enfants courir / les enfants qui couraient.
I spent the evening watching the birds wheeling in the sky.
She glimpsed the animal coming out of the mist.
The tourists observed the lion sleeping.
She watched the workmen working.
We saw the children running.
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Word order is of great importance here. For instance, if an adverbial expression of place were added to, say, Les touristes observaient dormir le lion, one would doubtless read, for balance’s sake: Les touristes observaient le lion dormir dans la clairi`ere. Dormir would come after lion. Similarly, Nous voyions les enfants courir dans le parc would be preferable to Nous voyions courir les enfants dans le parc. Word order with verbs of perception is therefore variable.
40.2 Verbs of sound J’entendais chanter les oiseaux / les oiseaux chanter / les oiseaux qui chantaient. Elle ´ecoutait babiller son b´eb´e / son b´eb´e babiller / son b´eb´e qui babillait.
I heard the birds singing.
She listened to her baby gurgling.
Entendre does not necessarily have a noun or direct object as part of its complement, as in: On entendait marcher dans le couloir / chanter dans le jardin. ` la J’ai entendu frapper/appeler a porte. ` verse. J’ai entendu pleuvoir a
We could hear someone walking in the corridor / singing in the garden. I heard someone knocking/calling at the door. I heard it pouring down.
40.3 Verb of smell Je sentais monter un parfum l´eger de lilas / un parfum l´eger de lilas qui montait.
I smelled a slight lilac perfume rising.
It is highly unlikely that, in the first case, monter would follow un parfum l´eger de lilas, unless an adverbial expression of place for example were added: Je sentais un parfum l´eger de lilas monter du jardin.
40.4 Verbs of wishing Je souhaitais entendre exprimer l’´emotion de sa musique. Nous d´esirions voir jouer sa meilleure pi`ece.
I wished to hear expressed the emotion of her music. We wanted to see his best play put on.
41 Subordinate clauses of time / La proposition subordonn´ee de temps The following passage describes the majestic mountain scenery offered by the route Napol´eon, from Nice to Grenoble. Of notable concern here are the various subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions. Generally speaking, we observe a range of tenses in the indicative, with only one in the subjunctive, required by avant que. There is also an infinitive (avant de s’engager). Note how the future occurs several times in the very last sentence. The conjunctions and their concomitant verbs appear in bold. Some translations are given. Grenoble–Nice : la route Napol´eon Si vous souhaitez vous rendre sur la Cˆ ote d’Azur, il convient de parcourir cette belle route pour d´ecouvrir et contempler le paysage spectaculaire en partant de Grenoble, la capitale des Alpes. Lorsque nous prenons la route Napol´eon, nous suivons sur des centaines de kilom`etres un circuit ` Nice. Cet itin´eraire, devenu historique, fut touristique de Grenoble a ` Grenoble par l’Empereur quand il revint de l’ˆıle emprunt´e de Nice a d’Elbe en 1815 pour s’emparer du pouvoir avant de s’engager dans la funeste bataille de Waterloo en Belgique. Depuis que nous avons ` goˆ ut´e au grand calme du paysage, nous ´eprouvons un plaisir intense a faire et refaire cette route. Nous avons une certaine pr´edilection pour ` la belle saison, en pr´esence d’amis. Avant que la neige ne ce parcours, a tombe, la route est praticable pour les voitures. Comme nous arrivons ` Nice, en g´en´eral, le lendemain de notre d´epart de Grenoble, il faut a r´eserver une nuit dans un gˆıte rural [bed and breakfast]. ` poings ferm´es [deeply], la propri´etaire des Alors que nous dormions a ` la porte de la chambre pour nous inviter a ` prendre le petitlieux frappa a d´ejeuner. Avant de manger, nous sommes pass´es sous la douche. Nous ` manger comme le chef sortait de la cuisine. arrivˆ ames dans la salle a Pendant que nous admirions les chaˆınes de montagnes qui dominent les villes de Gap, Digne et Grasse d’o` u s’´elevait le parfum enivrant de la lavande, une jeune fille servait les clients en apportant le caf´e, le lait et les croissants aux amandes sur un grand plateau. Ensuite, la serveuse s’approcha de notre table pour que nous passions commande. Nos amis adorent le chocolat, tandis que notre famille, elle, a une pr´ef´erence
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` mesure que les clients du gˆıte s’asseyaient a ` pour le th´e et le caf´e. A ` table, la salle se remplissait. Nous appr´eciions cette vie montagnarde a ` mesure que l’on mesure que nous la connaissions mieux. Au fur et a approchait de Nice, nous distinguions la Grande Bleue [Mediterranean Sea]. ` Grenoble, nous leur proposons Chaque fois que nos amis viennent a de d´ecouvrir un aspect diff´erent de la ville de Stendhal, et nous sillonnons ensemble le Dauphin´e o` u se d´eroulent les premi`eres sc`enes du roman Le Rouge et le noir. Nos amis nous rendent r´eguli`erement visite car ils adorent la montagne. Comme la plupart du temps il fait beau, ` l’ext´erieur parce que c’est la meilleure nous en profitons pour ˆetre a ` Grenoble, nos mani`ere d’appr´ecier la montagne. Quand ils arrivent a amis savourent [relish] la vue magnifique sur la chaˆıne de Belledonne. Puisque nos amis se montrent toujours satisfaits de leur s´ejour, nous ` leur faire connaˆıtre les moindres recoins [small hidden n’h´esitons pas a ` peine eurent-ils explor´ e d’autres places] de la ville et de la r´egion. A coins et recoins qu’ils ne regrett`erent pas leur p´eriple [trip] parmi les Grenoblois. Aussitˆ ot que les habitants de la ville se sont ´echapp´ es pour ` la montagne, Grenoble a fait place vide. D` se rendre a es que le weekend est arriv´e, les ´etudiants sont rentr´es chez eux. Quand les grandes vacances arriveront, la ville se videra, et quand elles se termineront la ville se remplira.
41.1 Simultaneous action The conjunctions comme, lorsque, quand and si indicate that two actions occur simultaneously, and the tenses do not have to be the same: Nous sommes arriv´es comme notre cousin partait. Comme notre h´eros entrait, le t´el´ephone sonna. Papa lisait lorsque Maman cuisinait. Sabrina rentre quand il pleut. Sabrina sort s’il ne pleut pas. Envoie-moi un texto quand tu ` Prague. arriveras a
We arrived as our cousin was leaving. As our hero came in, the phone rang. Pop read while Mom cooked. Sabrina comes in when it rains. Sabrina goes out if it is not raining. Send me a text message when you arrive in Prague.
Alors que can indicate that the action has already started when the main clause intervenes: ` Alors que je dormais, on frappa a la porte.
While I was sleeping, someone knocked at the door.
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Pendant que indicates a notion of dur´ee or length of time (=while): Pendant que je travaille, va faire les courses.
While I’m working, do the shopping.
It is advisable to avoid confusion between pendant que, as in the example immediately above, and tandis que. The first refers specifically to time and the second suggests contrast, although they can overlap, as in the second case below: Sophie adore le chocolat, tandis que moi j’en ai horreur. Tandis que Pierre travaille, Jean se repose.
Sophie adores chocolate while me, I loathe it. While Pierre works, Jean takes a rest.
` mesure que: A precise idea of parallel actions is evoked by a ` mesure qu’on se On s’aime a connaˆıt mieux. ` mesure que C´eline parlait / que A le soir tombait la salle se vidait.
We like each other as we get to know each other better/more. While/As C´eline was speaking / the evening was closing in, people were leaving the hall.
` mesure que is much more precise than a ` mesure que: Au fur et a ` mesure que la soir´ee Au fur et a avanc¸ait, Louis devenait de plus en plus anim´e. Nous vendrons ces objets au fur ` mesure que croˆıtront nos et a besoins / que nous aurons besoin d’argent. ` mesure que l’on Au fur et a approchait de Cracovie, nous distinguions les toits.
As the evening wore on, Louis became more and more excited. We’ll sell these objects according to how our needs grow / we need the money. As we approached Cracow, we started to distinguish the roofs.
Chaque fois indicates an idea of repetition: Chaque fois que Jean enfourchait son v´elo, il tombait. ` chaque fois que St´ephanie A ouvre la bouche, elle dit une bˆetise.
Each time Jean got on his bicycle, he would fall off. Each time St´ephanie opens her mouth, she says something stupid.
41.2 When a secondary action precedes the main one The secondary action can be expressed by the conjunctions car, comme, parce que, puisque and quand, and is often, but by no means always, followed by a compound tense:
Subordinate clauses of time
Il m’en veut, car il ne m’a pas salu´ee. Comme le train avait pris du retard, nous n’avons pas vu le d´ebut du spectacle. Le chat miaule parce qu’il a faim. Guillaume ne peut/pourra pas venir parce qu’il est tomb´e malade. Quand Philippe a mang´e, il sort.
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He has a grudge against me, for he did not greet me. Since the train had been delayed, we didn’t see the beginning of the show. The cat is miaowing for he’s hungry. Guillaume can’t come / won’t be able to come because he is sick. When Philippe has eaten, he leaves.
` peine, aussitˆot que, d`es que are used to indiThe conjunctive expressions, a cate an immediate succession of actions: ` peine l’eut-il dit qu’il le A Hardly had he said it than he was regretta. sorry. Aussitˆ ot que Marie m’a vue, elle As soon as Marie saw me, she waved. m’a fait signe. D`es que Pierre a t´el´ephon´e, il est As soon as Pierre phoned, he went out. sorti. D`es que sa cousine avait bu un As soon as her cousin had drunk a verre, elle d´elirait. glass, she would talk nonsense.
41.3 When a secondary action follows the main one The conjunctions avant que and jusqu’` a ce que indicate that the secondary action of the subordinate clause follows the main one. The subjunctive is required here (see Chapter 44 on the subjunctive): Avant que Franc¸oise n’arrive, ` me dire. dis-moi ce que tu as a Avant que papa intervienne, d´epˆechons-nous. Insiste jusqu’` a ce que Marie accepte. Patientez jusqu’` a ce que Maman revienne. Note that the expletive ne in the first than the second example.
Before Franc¸oise comes, tell me what you have to say to me. Before Pop intervenes, let’s hurry. Insist until Marie accepts. Be patient until Mom comes back. example suggests a higher register
The conjunction depuis que applies to a period up to the moment of speaking, and implies an idea of simultaneity. Note the use of the present tense here: Depuis que le petit est ici, nous n’avons pas une minute de tranquillit´e.
Since the boy has been here, we haven’t had a moment’s peace.
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41.4 Miscellaneous points Note the use of the future with many conjunctions when a future is implied: ` Qu´ebec, je Quand j’irai a t’ach`eterai un jouet. Pendant que tu seras en Alg´erie, envoie-moi un texto. D`es que tu seras prˆete, dis-le-moi. ` Lyon, Aussitˆ ot que tu arriveras a appelle-moi. Apr`es que les enfants auront termin´e leurs examens, on pourra passer une semaine en Corse.
When I go to Quebec City, I’ll buy you a toy. While you are in Algeria, send me a text message. As soon as you are ready, tell me. As soon as you are in Lyon, call me. After the children have finished their exams, we can spend a week in Corsica.
There is a very clear parallel between present and future, and past and conditional with conjunctions: Je croyais que pendant que les enfants seraient au cin´ema on serait tranquille. Aur´elie pensait que l’on pourrait partir en vacances quand les temps seraient meilleurs. Je lui ai promis de lui ´ecrire quand je serais arriv´e. ` inviter toute Je me suis engag´e a ` m’accompagner en la famille a Alaska apr`es qu’ils auraient fini leur travail.
I thought that while the children were at the movies, we’d have some peace. Aur´elie thought that we could go on vacation when times were better. I promised to write him when I arrived. I promised to invite all the family to accompany me to Alaska after they had finished their work.
The following construction involving a future tense when the event has already taken place is not uncommon, notably on historical topics: Quand Napol´eon mourra, toute l’Europe se r´ejouira. Quand la r´evolution ´eclatera, ce sera la fin de la monarchie.
When Napoleon dies, the whole of Europe will rejoice. When the revolution broke out, it announced the end of the monarchy.
If the subject is the same for the main and subordinate clauses, an infinitive or perfect infinitive is used in place of the subject with avant de and apr`es, but not with the other conjunctions treated above: Avant de manger, lave-toi les mains. Apr`es avoir mang´e, ils all`erent au cin´ema.
Before eating, wash your hands. After eating, they went to the movies.
42 Complex verbal expressions / Les expressions verbales complexes The following passage relates the excitement experienced by tourists enjoying a day out on a small train running through the grandiose Alpine scenery surrounding Grenoble in the department of Is`ere. Indicated in bold is a series of idiomatic expressions which are dealt with in this chapter and which cause uncertainty for foreign learners of French by reason of their complexity. A few translations are provided. Le circuit de La Mure De quoi s’agit-il ? S’agit-il de quelque chose ou de quelqu’un ? Il s’agit de savoir de quoi nous parlons. Il ne s’agit pas de la mˆ ure [blackberry] ou du fruit noir du mˆ urier. Il ne peut s’agir que de la petite ville sur le ` proximit´e de Grenoble, plateau Matheysin situ´ee au cœur des Alpes a la capitale de cette somptueuse r´egion montagneuse. En partant de Saint-Georges-de-Commiers, il existe ce qu’on appelle « le petit train de La Mure ». Pendant l’´et´e, les wagons des ann´ees trente sont complets. Les voyageurs retrouvent le charme d’antan. Ils embarquent pour une destination faite de bons moments de d´etente, d’´emerveillement et de plaisir. Un r´eel enchantement ! Un circuit magnifique surnomm´e « la plus belle ligne des Alpes » attire de nombreux visiteurs. Peu s’en fallait que je devienne machiniste [train driver] pour conduire un train ! ` ce que l’animatrice fasse les commentaires Nous nous attendions a pr´ecis sur notre visite guid´ee. De splendides perspectives sur le Montey` nos yeux. Entre nard, lac aux eaux couleur bleu turquoise, s’offraient a le massif du Vercors et le lac de Monteynard, un itin´eraire spectaculaire et contrast´e s’ouvrait comme un ´ecrin [jewel box] bois´e et min´eral. Nous avions beau faire, pour la ´eni`eme fois, ce circuit pittoresque, nous ´etions toujours aussi ´emerveill´es par le paysage naturel ! La ligne ferroviaire est jalonn´ee [full of / marked out by] de gorges, de vall´ees, de viaducs, de tunnels et de sommets vertigineux. Les enfants avaient beau crier en approchant les longs tunnels, l’animatrice n’entendait rien. Elle poursuivait ses commentaires en soulignant que nous empruntions la ligne ` Saintd’un ancien train minier qui descendait le charbon de La Mure a Georges-de-Commiers. Les voyageurs avaient l’interdiction de fumer dans les wagons. Les enfants avaient la d´ efense absolue de s’approcher
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des fenˆetres. Il fallait donc se garder de se pencher au-dehors. Durant ` la Motte d’Aveillans, nous avions cœur a ` goˆ ` notre halte a uter et a acheter le miel du pays. L’apicultrice ne put se d´ efendre [could not help] de sourire aux visiteurs et clients. Elle s’entretenait avec un visiteur de la vie des abeilles. Elle nous racontait qu’elle s’ennuyait de ses amies qu’elle avait laiss´ees dans la vall´ee. ` La Mure a d´efray´e la chronique de tous les jourLa fin du charbon a naux r´egionaux. Il n’empˆeche que cette r´egion reste tr`es bois´ee et attire ` de nombreux touristes ´etrangers pendant l’´et´e. Les sites touristiques a visiter ne font pas d´efaut. Cela nous a donn´e l’occasion de faire connaissance avec les habitants de la r´egion qui nous ont souhait´ e la bienvenue et nous nous en f´elicitons. Notre p´eriple [trip] touristique s’est pour` redire parce que la r´egion ´etait tr`es suivi et nous n’avons trouv´e rien a accueillante. Les Murois veillent a ` ce que les touristes repartent satisfaits. Finalement, nous n’avons pas manqu´ e de remercier les habitants de leur chaleureux accueil.
There exist in French, as in other Romance languages and English for that matter, numerous verbal expressions which, as a result of their apparently complicated structure, at least for foreigners, do not encourage learners to use them. This is unfortunate because such expressions often convey important shades of meaning which are difficult to express otherwise, and also because some of them recur constantly in current usage. Note that il s’agit de ( = it is a question of ) is an impersonal expression, and the subject can only ever be il, never a noun. De quoi s’agit-il ? Il s’agissait de le faire correctement. Il s’agira de r´e´ecrire la lettre. Il ne peut s’agir que de Fr´ed´eric.
What’s it about? It was a question of doing it correctly. It will be a question of rewriting the letter. It must have something to do with Fr´ed´eric.
However, s’agissant de is permissible and, although once out of favor, it has gained a vigor among even careful writers: S’agissant de son retour, je lui ai ` la dit que je ne serais pas a maison. S’agissant de vous, nous n’insisterons pas.
With respect to her return, I told her that I would not be home. As far as you are concerned, we’ll not insist.
This contruction may also be used with the subjunctive il faut ( = you must / he must, etc.): Il s’agit que tu le fasses d`es que possible.
You have to do it as soon as possible.
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` ce que + subjunctive = to expect s’attendre a ` ce qu’elle revienne Je m’attends a sous peu. ` ce que la prof On s’attend a corrige les copies dans la semaine. ` des reproches. Attendez-vous a
I expect she’ll be back shortly. We expect the teacher to do the marking during this week. Expect criticism.
As a non-reflexive verb, it can also mean to expect: On attend l’arriv´ee du premier ministre dans la soir´ee.
We are expecting the prime minister’s arrival this evening.
avoir beau faire quelque chose = to do something in vain Ir`ene a beau faire, elle n’aura pas ses examens. J’ai beau crier, il n’entend rien. A beau mentir qui vient de loin.
Whatever she does, Ir`ene won’t get through her examinations. It’s pointless shouting, he can’t hear anything. He can lie as much as he likes, we can’t check on him.
avoir l’interdiction / la d´efense de faire quelque chose (R3) = to be forbidden to do something Les ´el`eves ont eu l’interdiction de fumer en cours. J’avais la d´efense absolue de quitter la ferme.
The pupils were forbidden to smoke in class. I was strictly forbidden to leave the farm.
` cœur de faire quelque chose = to set one’s heart on doing something avoir a ` cœur d’entrer au Armelle avait a Conservatoire.
Armelle was set on getting into the Conservatoire.
se d´efendre d’ˆetre (R3) = to refuse to admit, to deny being Guillaume se d´efend d’ˆetre anti-Europ´een. La ministre s’est toujours d´efendue de vouloir cr´eer un nouveau parti politique.
Guillaume refuses to admit he is anti-European. The minister has always refused to admit that she wants to create a new political party.
Antoine ne put se d´efendre de sourire. Je ne m’en d´efends pas.
Antoine could not help smiling. I don’t deny it.
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The rail accident / The kidnapping of the tourists has been all over the papers.
se disputer le droit / le privil`ege de faire quelque chose = to argue over the right / privilege to do something Les deux fr`eres se sont disput´e le droit de conduire la voiture. Les athl`etes se disputaient le privil`ege de porter le drapeau.
The two brothers argued over who would drive. The athletes argued over the privilege of carrying the flag.
(il) n’empˆeche que + indicative = nevertheless Leur ´equipe avait une d´efense tr`es solide; (il) n’empˆeche qu’ils ont encaiss´e trois buts. Il m’a fait un mauvais tour ; n’empˆeche qu’il serait le bienvenu.
Their team had a tough defense; they nevertheless let in three goals. He played a dirty trick on me; he would nevertheless be welcome.
Note that the expression is more colloquial with the loss of the impersonal il. comme si de rien n’´etait = as if nothing had happened Apr`es notre bagarre il est revenu comme si de rien n’´etait. Faites comme si de rien n’´etait.
After our fight, he came back as if nothing had happened. Act as if nothing had happened.
s’ennuyer de quelqu’un (R3) = to miss someone Je m’ennuyais de mes amies que j’avais laiss´ees au village.
I missed my friends that I had left behind in the village.
s’entretenir avec quelqu’un de quelque chose = to hold discussions with someone about something Le ministre s’est entretenu avec le pr´esident de la politique agricole.
The minister discussed the agricultural policy with the president.
se faire faute de (R3) = to feel guilty/responsible for Apr`es cet accident, je me ferai toujours faute de ne pas avoir ´et´e plus prudent.
After that accident, I’ll always feel guilty over not having been more careful.
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ne pas se faire faute de (R3) = not to fail to Ils ne se sont pas fait faute d’en They did not fail to talk about it. parler. Le garagiste m’a offert ses The garage owner offered me his services, je ne m’en suis pas fait services, and I availed myself of faute. them. en faire autant = to do the same thing Louise a fait d’excellentes ´etudes ; je voudrais en faire autant. ` nager. Tˆ Ton fr`ere a appris a ache d’en faire autant.
Louise studied wonderfully well; I’d like to do the same. Your brother has learned to swim; try to do the same.
` quelqu’un = to place trust in someone faire confiance a Ma fille est tr`es jeune. Si elle t’accompagne, je te fais confiance.
My daughter is very young. If she comes with you, I trust you.
faire connaissance avec / la connaissance de = to come to know J’ai fait connaissance avec ` Adrienne il y a un an a Bruxelles. Quand as-tu fait la connaissance de ma cousine ?
I met Adrienne for the first time a year ago in Brussels. When did you get to know my cousin?
faire d´efaut = to be lacking L’argent me fait d´efaut. La concision lui fait d´efaut. Les forces m’ont fait d´efaut.
I need money. He lacks concision. I lacked the strength.
` quelqu’un = to follow someone (used literally and figuratively, emboˆıter le pas a i.e., to take someone’s lead) J’ai ouvert la marche et mon fr`ere m’a emboˆıt´e le pas. Sabrina emboˆıtait toujours le pas ` son fr`ere aˆın´e. a
I led the way and my brother fell in behind. Sabrina always followed suit in what her older brother did.
faire expr`es de = to do (something) deliberately S´ebastien fait expr`es d’embˆeter les filles. Tu as fait expr`es de cacher mon cadeau.
S´ebastien deliberately annoys the girls. You deliberately hid my present.
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This person was judged (too) quickly.
faire fi de quelque chose (R3) = to scorn something Pourquoi fait-il fi de mon autorit´e / de mes conseils ?
Why does he scorn/defy my authority/advice?
se faire fort de = to be confident about, to commit oneself to La dame s’est fait fort d’obtenir la signature de son mari. Elle ´etait une brillante ´el`eve. Elle s’est fait fort d’ˆetre premi`ere au palmar`es.
The lady confidently committed herself to obtaining her husband’s signature. She was a brilliant student. She was confident about being first in the honors list.
Note that fort here is invariable. ` quelqu’un = to make someone feel ashamed faire honte a Le comportement impoli de mon fr`ere me fait honte.
My brother’s discourteous behavior makes me feel ashamed.
faire peu de cas de quelque chose = to ignore something Ma cousine fait peu de cas de ce qu’on lui dit.
My cousin ignores what is said to her.
faire grand cas de = to pay great attention to Mon fils m’ob´eit de fac¸on exemplaire. Il fait toujours grand cas de mes conseils.
My son obeys me in exemplary style. He always pays great attention to my advice.
peu s’en faut que (R3) + subjunctive suggests the idea of almost La coupable est venue s’excuser. Mais peu s’en faut que la ` son directrice aille le dire a p`ere. Peu s’en est fallu qu’elle soit tu´ee dans la collision.
The guilty girl came to apologize. But the principal/headteacher almost went to tell her father. She was almost killed in the collision.
il s’en faut de beaucoup que (R3) + subjunctive = to be far from Il s’en fallait de beaucoup qu’ils soient heureux.
They were far from being happy.
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This expression also stands alone: Pierre n’est pas si raisonnable que Pierre isn’t as reasonable as his son fr`ere. Il s’en faut de brother. Far from it. beaucoup. se f´eliciter de quelque chose = to express satisfaction over something Toute la famille se f´elicite du mariage de leur fille. On s’est tous f´elicit´es de l’heureuse issue de cette d´elicate affaire. Notre fils a remport´e un championnat d’´echecs, et je m’en f´elicite.
The whole family is happy over their daughter’s marriage. We all expressed satisfaction at the happy outcome of this awkward affair. Our son has won a chess championship and I am very happy.
se garder de = to take care not to J’ai mes propres opinions mais je me garderais de les exprimer. Maman s’est bien gard´ee de questionner ma sœur, autrement elles se seraient disput´ees.
I have my own opinions but I’ll be careful not to express them. Mom did well not to question my sister, otherwise, they would have had an argument.
` quelqu’un = to fill someone with respect en imposer a Avec sa carrure de boxeur, il en a ` l’agresseur. impos´e a J’ai vu des gens s’inqui´eter, tellement il leur en imposait.
With his enormous physique, he made the mugger think twice. I saw people get worried, so much respect did he instill into them.
`/contre quelqu’un (R3) = to take someone to court intenter un proc`es a La dame a intent´e un proc`es `/contre sa voisine dont le a chien laissait traˆıner des crottes dans son jardin.
The lady took her neighbor to court for her dog left its mess in her yard/ garden.
` quelqu’un = to be lacking to someone, i.e., to miss manquer a Le soleil me manque en Alaska. J’appr´ecie beaucoup le Canada, mais le Mexique me manque. ` l’appel. Deux soldats manquent a
I miss the sun in Alaska. I appreciate Canada very much but I do miss Mexico. Two soldiers are missing the roll call.
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Note that manquer de contains the idea of almost: Dans ma pr´ecipitation, j’ai manqu´e de renverser le vase. La petite a manqu´e de se noyer.
In my haste, I nearly knocked the vase over. The little girl nearly drowned.
Note also that ne pas manquer de means not to fail to: Ne manque pas de me t´el´ephoner en arrivant.
Don’t fail to phone me on arrival.
` mˆeme de = to enable mettre a ` mˆeme de Ce syst`eme nous a mis a v´erifier les calculs.
This system enabled us to check the calculations.
mettre quelqu’un en demeure de (R3) = to oblige someone to (has a legal connotation) Le juge a mis l’accus´e en demeure de tenir ses engagements.
The judge placed it upon the accused to keep to his commitments.
se passer de = to do without Il est tr`es difficile de se passer d’argent. Tu te passeras de ton livre pendant ton examen.
It is very difficult to do without money. You will do without your book in the exam.
passer en revue = to review, to go through La reine a pass´e les troupes en revue. L’actrice a pass´e en revue sa garde-robe avant de se pr´esenter sur le plateau.
The queen reviewed the troops. The actress went through her wardrobe before coming out onto the set.
` quelque chose (R3) = to damage, to affect something adversely porter atteinte a Cet acte ignominieux a port´e ` l’honneur de la atteinte a d´eput´ee.
This ignominious act cast a slur on the representative’s honor.
La tradition du rationalisme ` porter atteinte a ` la consiste a religion.
The rationalist tradition consists in attacking religion.
` quelqu’un = to criticize someone s’en prendre a Les journalistes s’en sont vivement pris au gouvernement.
The journalists launched a fierce attack on the government.
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` quelque chose = to rely on something s’en rapporter a Les parents s’en sont rapport´es au bon sens des professeurs. Les cr´eanciers s’en sont rapport´es ` l’arbitrage du juge. a
The parents relied on the good sense of the teachers. The creditors trusted in the judge’s arbitration.
se r´eclamer de quelque chose (R3) = to appeal to / to cite the authority of something Le philosophe se r´eclama du marxisme pour d´efendre sa cause. Je me r´eclame de Dieu pour exiger justice. Saint Paul se r´eclama de C´esar pour d´efendre le christianisme.
The philosopher appealed to Marxism to defend his cause. I appeal to God to demand justice. St Paul appealed unto Caesar to defend Christianity.
` quelqu’un = to rely on someone s’en remettre a ` vous pour me Je m’en remets a tirer d’affaire. L’accus´ee s’en est remise au ` la d´ecision de son jugement / a avocat.
I rely on you to get me out of this fix. The accused relied on her lawyer’s judgment/decision.
` quelqu’un = to cheer someone up remonter / retaper (R1) le moral a Qu’est-ce qu’il est abattu. Il faut lui remonter/retaper le moral.
He really is depressed. We must cheer him up.
se r´epercuter sur = to have repercussions on ur, les hausses de salaire Bien sˆ doivent se r´epercuter sur les prix. Les effets de la fatigue se r´epercutaient sur le moral.
Sure enough, increased salaries must have an effect on prices. The effects of tiredness had repercussions on their/our morale.
se ressentir de quelque chose = to feel the effects of something Je me ressens toujours de I still feel the effects of the accident. l’accident. Jeanne se ressentait mˆeme hier de Jeanne still felt even yesterday the sa visite chez le dentiste. effects of her visit to the dentist. ` quoi s’en tenir = not to know what to believe ne pas savoir a Puisqu’il blague toujours, je ne ` quoi m’en tenir. sais pas a
Since he’s always joking, I never know what to believe.
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A Reference Grammar of French ` quelqu’un (R3) = to be grateful to someone savoir gr´e a Je lui sais gr´e de m’avoir avertie. Je vous saurais gr´e de m’accompagner jusqu’` a mon domicile.
I am thankful to him for warning me. I would be grateful to you if you could accompany me to my house.
` quelqu’un = to welcome someone souhaiter la bienvenue a Elle m’a souhait´e la bienvenue. Vous ˆetes le/la/les bienvenu(e)(s). Soyez les bienvenus !
She welcomed me. You are welcome. Welcome!
` = to be anxious, to be keen on tenir a ` partir avec moi. Ma fille tenait a “Ce n’est pas n´ecessaire de payer les billets.” “Mais, j’y tiens.”
My daughter was keen to come with me. “You don’t need to buy the tickets.” “But I want to.”
` quelqu’un de quelque chose = to hold it against someone for tenir rigueur a something ` cette Je tiendrai toujours a ´etudiante rigueur de ne pas avoir remis son travail.
I’ll always hold it against this student for not handing in her work.
` = to defy tenir tˆete a Les jeunes du quartier ont tenu tˆete aux policiers.
The local youths defied the police.
traiter quelqu’un de quelque chose = to call someone something (usually has a negative connotation) Kafka a trait´e son p`ere de tyran. Le jeune m’a trait´e de tous les noms.
Kafka called his father a tyrant. The youth called me everything.
` redire a ` quelque chose = to criticize trouver a ` redire a ` tout Je ne trouve rien a cela. ` Ma cousine trouve toujours a `/sur ce que je fais. redire a
I can’t find anything wrong with that. My cousin always has something to criticize in what I do.
` ce que + subjunctive = to see to it that veiller a ` ce que le travail soit Veille a termin´e en temps voulu. ` ce que ton oncle soit Veille a content de toi.
See to it that the work is completed in the agreed time. Make sure your uncle is happy with you.
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` quelqu’un = to come to someone’s aid venir en aide a Les secouristes nous sont venus ` la suite de notre en aide a accident.
The first-aid workers came to our aid following our accident.
` quelqu’un = to hold it against someone en vouloir a Mon camarade m’en veut parce que je ne lui ai pas envoy´e de texto. Son petit ami lui en voulait de sa froideur.
My friend is angry with me because I did not send him a text message. Her boyfriend held it against her because of her coldness.
43 Verbs of movement / Les verbes de mouvement The following passage describes a moment of extreme danger caused by a gas leak. Firemen rush to the aid of the local people engulfed in the delirious need to escape. The final paragraph sees calm restored. Note the verbs used for movement, and the adverbs or adverbial expressions qualifying the movement. In English, the construction is often the other way round. The constructions to note are in bold. Some translations are offered.
Le tumulte de la rue Les sapeurs-pompiers partirent en masse [piled out] pour effectuer leurs op´erations de sauvetage. Les camions mont` erent et descendirent lourdement la rue. Le bouchon form´e par l’escorte des pompiers a oblig´e ` rouler au pas. Les gens affol´es accoururent en vitesse tous les v´ehicules a [came rushing up] de toute part. Une m`ere de famille monta l’escalier en courant pour aller chercher ses enfants rest´es dans leur chambre. Ces derniers rentr`erent et sortirent en coup de vent. Le p`ere gagna en rampant le mur de la maison. Il revint en boitant [hobbled back] du jardin. Les voisins travers`erent la rue en courant pour lui venir en aide. Le fils aˆın´e entra en trombe dans le garage. Tous ses copains mont`erent en masse [piled in] dans la voiture. L’un deux, affol´e par le ` la nage. bruit, traversa l’Is`ere a Un pompier portant le casque et l’uniforme d´eclara : « Surtout ´vacuez les lieux dans le calme et pas d’affolement ! [Don’t panic]. E rassemblez-vous au coin de la rue. » La grand-m`ere, un peu dure d’oreille [hard of hearing], descendit l’escalier sur la pointe des pieds. Elle ` v´ avanc¸a d’un pas lent [crept forward]. Sa petite-fille revint a elo. Elle passa comme un ´eclair devant les pompiers. La jeune adolescente suivit du regard les pompiers et montra sa vive inqui´etude. Debout dans la rue, elle suivait des yeux un d´efil´e ininterrompu de pompiers, de policiers, de m´edecins urgentistes et de gaziers venus en renfort. Il fut impossible de parcourir la rue en vitesse. Derri`ere la cam´era, les journalistes film`erent l’´ev´enement. Cette situation tumultueuse trouva son explication dans une erreur humaine qui aurait pu ˆetre fatale : la fuite d’une conduite de gaz.
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En fin de matin´ee, la rue retrouva enfin son calme. Des couples se ` longer la promen`erent le long de l’Is`ere. Ils pass`erent l’apr`es-midi a rivi`ere en flˆ anant [strolled along the river] et en appr´eciant leur balade ` leur passage, les oiseaux s’envol` ` tire d’aile [took to the citadine. A erent a skies] en gazouillant. Un couple s’arrˆeta net pour s’asseoir sur un banc de pierre. L’homme plongea son regard dans les yeux de sa compagne. Plus loin, d’autres promeneurs contempl`erent les cimes neigeuses de la chaˆıne de Belledonne. Les deux amoureux promen` erent langoureusement leur regard sur la montagne. Ils fouill` erent du regard les sapins d´egageant une odeur de r´esine. Pour rentrer chez eux, ils march` erent ` travers champ. a
An important difference between the French and English verbal systems concerns the way in which expressions of movement are analyzed and treated in the two languages. In French, the direction of movement is often indicated by the verb itself, and the manner of movement by a phrase, either a gerund or an adverbial expression, whereas in English the verb conveys the manner of the movement, and an adverb or prepositional expression the direction. This phenomenon in French is shared by other Romance languages such as Italian and Spanish, and is with these languages an important characteristic. The French refer neatly to this feature by way of explanation as a chass´e crois´e, a dance term meaning set to partners where a partner, say A, in two sets of partners, crosses over diagonally to join the partner B of the other set. For example: Elle a travers´e la rue en courant.
She ran across the road.
Traverser corresponds to across and en courant corresponds to ran. The following list illustrates how this difference expresses itself: French (direction indicated by verb; manner indicated by phrase) Elle a mont´e l’escalier en courant. Il gagna en rampant le mur de la prison. Elle revint en boitant de la cuisine. Il entra en coup de vent / en trombe. Elle sortit en coup de vent / en trombe. ` la nage. Byron a travers´e le Tage a Elle a descendu l’escalier sur la pointe des pieds. Elle a mont´e l’escalier sur la pointe des pieds.
English (direction indicated by adverb / prepositional expression; manner indicated by verb) She ran up the stairs. He crawled toward the prison wall. She hobbled back to the kitchen. He burst in. She burst out. Byron swam across the Tagus. She crept downstairs. She crept upstairs.
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` v´elo. Elle est revenue a Tous les garc¸ons sont mont´es en masse dans la voiture. Ils sont partis en masse. Il est impossible de parcourir en vitesse Guerre et paix. Je ne l’ai pas entendue. Elle a dˆ u entrer discr`etement. Je l’ai vu arriver en courant. Tu l’as vu passer en vitesse ? ` tire Les oiseaux s’envol`erent a d’aile. Le Jama¨ıcain Bolt passa comme une foudre. Les camions montaient et descendaient lourdement la rue. Le fermier avanc¸a d’un pas lent / lentement. ` longer la On a pass´e l’apr`es-midi a rivi`ere en flˆ anant. Le bouchon a oblig´e tous les ` rouler au pas. v´ehicules a
She cycled back. All the boys piled into the car. They piled out / flooded out. It’s impossible to race through War and Peace. I didn’t hear her. She must have slipped in. I saw him running up. Did you see him whizz past/by? The birds flew off. The Jamaican Bolt flashed by. The trucks trundled up and down the road. The farmer plodded along. We spent the afternoon dawdling along the river. The traffic jam forced all the vehicles to crawl along.
Despite this widespread phenomenon as illustrated above by such a variety of examples, French does on occasion follow the English pattern: French (direction indicated by adverb / prepositional expression; manner indicated by verb) Le chien est accouru en bondissant. Elle est pass´ee par-dessus le mur. Ils se sont promen´es le long de la rivi`ere. ` travers (les) Elles ont march´e a champs.
English (direction indicated by adverb / prepositional expression; manner indicated by verb) The dog came bounding up. She climbed over the wall. They walked along the river. They walked across the fields.
Note that the singular champ would require traverser (Elle a travers´e le champ) since champ is more specific, like rue, where champs is much vaguer. Often, when the manner of movement is specified in English, it is left unclear or is completely ignored in French: a general verb occurs in French whereas English has recourse to a specific verb, although English may also use a general verb like French: Elles ont travers´e la rue.
They crossed the road / walked across the road.
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Implicit within traverser, for example, is the idea of walking; if the person had run across the road, the phrase en courant would have been added. A similar kind of chass´e crois´e is most apparent with a good number of verbs associated with seeing. In some cases, movement could be involved, but not always: Le po`ete promenait langoureusement son regard sur la plaine. Les enfants, debout sur le quai, suivaient des yeux la voie ferr´ee. Elle fouillait du regard les coins obscurs de la chambre. Il a scrut´e du regard le bois t´en´ebreux. Notre h´eros a plong´e son regard / ses yeux dans les yeux de la femme. Similarly with examiner and observer.
The poet looked languorously over the plain / cast his languorous eye over the plain. Standing on the platform, the children peered down the line. She looked searchingly into the dark corners of the room. He looked carefully into the dark wood. Our hero looked penetratingly into the eyes of the woman.
Part IV
44 Subjunctive mood / Le mode du subjonctif The following passage describes the protracted strike action adopted by French university teachers and some students during the academic year 2008–2009. At stake were the new teaching and research conditions unilaterally imposed by the Sarkozy government. The strike, which disrupted classes for close to a whole year, could only be called off by conciliatory measures offered by the French government. The passage illustrates the use of the subjunctive in various tenses – the present, the imperfect and the perfect. The subjunctive forms are highlighted in bold, as are the expressions which require the subjunctive. Some translations are provided. Un long semestre de mobilisation Les organisations syndicales doutent que la ministre de l’enseignement ` leurs d´ebats. En effet, elle fait une sup´erieur vienne participer a ` La Sorbonne Nouvelle. Certains pensent qu’elle va communication a venir, d’autres ne pensent pas qu’elle puisse venir. J’en doute fort ! Esp´erons qu’elle prenne le temps de les rencontrer. Encore faut-il qu’elle le veuille ! Le mouvement de gr`eve ne va pas s’interrompre avant que la ministre ne prenne part aux discussions. Il faudra qu’elle vienne pour d´esamorcer [to defuse] le conflit. Les syndicats ´etudiants doivent se concerter avant que la ministre ne soit arriv´ ee. Madame la ministre a ´et´e attendue jusqu’` a ce que l’horloge ait sonn´ e midi pile. Ensuite, les cohortes d’´etudiants et d’enseignants ont ´et´e oblig´ees de partir manger au restaurant universitaire. En attendant que la file d’attente s’´eclaircissˆıt, enseignants et ´etudiants ´echangeaient des propos. Ce sont les seuls qui aient compris le sens de cette mobilisation. Les autorit´es craignaient que cette mobilisation enseignante et ´etudiante ne servˆıt de pr´etexte pour impliquer un plus grand nombre de forces vives. Dieu soit lou´e ! Aucun affrontement s´erieux ne s’est produit ! Certains ´etudiants lanc¸aient : « Vivent les enseignants et les ´etudiants ! Vive la gr`eve ! Coˆ ute que coˆ ute, nous resterons dans le mouvement ! N’ayez crainte : El pueblo unido jam´ as ser´ a
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A Reference Grammar of French vencido!1 [Spanish expression heard during the meetings = Le peuple uni ne sera jamais vaincu !] Advienne que pourra ! ». On eˆ ut dit que [It looked as though] les gr`eves en continu [continuous] annonc¸aient la fin du second semestre universitaire. Qu’il y eˆ ut [The fact that there were] beaucoup de gr´evistes, tout le monde en est convenu. Les gr´evistes ` bloc. Ils d´ecident de descendre dans la rue quoiqu’il sont remont´es a arrive. Quelle que soit l’intention du gouvernement, les manifestants ne lˆ acheront pas prise [will not give way]. Ne fˆ ut-ce que pour [Even if it were only for] une courte p´eriode, la ministre s’est faite repr´esenter par une m´ediatrice. Que la repr´esentante du gouvernement reste ou qu’elle parte, ¸ca leur est compl`etement ´egal. Le mouvement de mobilisation prend de l’ampleur. Qu’il fasse beau les prochains jours, c’est certain. Sachez que « le Printemps des chaises » a ´et´e organis´e. Apr`es « le Printemps des chaises », « le Printemps des tables »2 a emboit´e le pas [followed on]. N’en d´ eplaise aux autorit´es ! ` ma connaissance, cette [Whether the authorities like it or not!]. A ` op´eration a connu un grand impact. Certains ´etudiants refuseront a ` la ronde des obstin´es. Ils se taimoins d’ˆetre contraints de participer a saient de crainte d’importuner leurs camarades. O` u qu’ils aillent, les manifestants les rejoindront. Aussi longtemps qu’ils s’obstineront, ils obtiendront gain de cause [they will win their case]. Grand bien leur fasse ! Le danger fˆ ut-il encore plus menac¸ant lorsque la fin du semestre s’annonc¸a. Pourvu que le semestre soit valid´ e et que l’ann´ee universitaire ne soit pas perdue pour tous. Viennent les vacances [Let the vacation come], les ´etudiants vont faire des excursions en montagne. Tout le monde sera content.
Whereas the subjunctive mood is extremely rare in English and is by and large restricted to R3 usage, sometimes verging in fact on the positively archaic (e.g., If I were you; Were you to come; So be it; Oh that it were so!), in French the subjunctive is still a mood to be reckoned with. What is often disconcerting to the student of the French subjunctive is that, in some cases, its use seems to conform to unmistakable and well-defined rules, and in others it seems to be a matter of choice. In the following discussion, the term “black and white” subjunctive will be applied to those circumstances where the use of the subjunctive is obligatory, and the term “gray” to those where a degree of choice or discretion is permissible. It should be noted with respect to the “gray” subjunctive that its use is often determined by 1
2
The Spanish song “El pueblo . . . ” was composed by the Chilean Sergio Ortega in support of the Allende regime overthrown in the early 1970s. It had some currency in France during that period. The “Printemps des chaises” and the “Printemps des tables” refer to the withdrawal of chairs, and then the withdrawal of tables, in order to make tuition impossible. These expressions recall the “Printemps des po`etes” that takes place yearly in certain French universities to celebrate the joys of poetry.
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instinct, particularly on the part of someone who is very conscious of the way in which (s)he uses language and is seeking an elegance of expression. The notion of doubt, hypothesis or some future act is often associated with the subjunctive. In other words, if an idea is not clearly substantiated or validated, the subjunctive may well be used. Although an R2 user will attempt to use the “gray” subjunctive in accordance with traditional prescriptions, the “gray” subjunctive and even the “black and white” subjunctive may disappear in speech through inadvertence and because of the frequent breaks in continuity of structure which are characteristic of R1 speech, but also of R2 speech: Je doute qu’elle vienne > Elle va venir ? J’en doute. It is considered a sign of ignorance or poor education when a person omits the subjunctive incorrectly, a common enough occurrence. It should also be noted that in some areas of the French-speaking world, notably in rural communities, the subjunctive may hardly manifest itself at all. It is consoling to realize that French speakers themselves can experience difficulty with certain forms of the subjunctive, resorting for example to veuillons/veuillions for the correct voulions, on analogy with veuille, and aie for ait.
44.1 Conjugation of the main types of verbs in the present, perfect, imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives Most subjunctive forms, but by no means all, are preceded by que je/tu, etc. It must be admitted that one hesitates to incorporate some of these forms into the body of this book since they are rarely, if ever, seen outside grammar manuals or texts of bygone eras. verbs ending in –er Present que je chante que tu chantes qu’il/elle chante que nous chantions que vous chantiez qu’il/elles chantent
Perfect aie chant´e aies chant´e ait chant´e ayons chant´e ayez chant´e aient chant´e
Imperfect chantasse chantasses chantˆ at chantassions chantassiez chantassent
Pluperfect eusse chant´e eusses chant´e eˆ ut chant´e eussions chant´e eussiez chant´e eussent chant´e
verbs ending in –re Present que je vende que tu vendes qu’il/elle vende que nous vendions que vous vendiez qu’ils/elles vendent
Perfect aie vendu aies vendu ait vendu ayons vendu ayez vendu aient vendu
Imperfect vendisse vendisses vendˆıt vendissions vendissiez vendissent
Pluperfect eusse vendu eusses vendu eˆ ut vendu eussions vendu eussiez vendu eussent vendu
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verbs ending in –ir Present que je finisse que tu finisses qu’il/elle finisse que nous finissions que vous finissiez qu’ils/elles finissent
Perfect aie fini aies fini ait fini ayons fini ayez fini aient fini
Imperfect finisse finisses finˆıt finissions finissiez finissent
Pluperfect eusse fini eusses fini eˆ ut fini eussions fini eussiez fini eussent fini
verbs ending in –oir Present que je rec¸oive que tu rec¸oives qu’il/elle rec¸oive que nous recevions que vous receviez qu’ils/elles rec¸oivent
Perfect aie rec¸u aies rec¸u ait rec¸u ayons rec¸u ayez rec¸u aient rec¸u
Imperfect rec¸usse rec¸usses ˆt rec¸u rec¸ussions rec¸ussiez rec¸ussent
Pluperfect eusse rec¸u eusses rec¸u eˆ ut rec¸u eussions rec¸u eussiez rec¸u eussent rec¸u
For the full conjugation of the subjunctive of all verbs, including irregular and reflexive verbs, see the verb tables at the end of this book. Note that verbs conjugated with ˆetre are formed in the following way: Present que je vienne que tu viennes qu’il/elle vienne que nous venions que vous veniez qu’ils/elles viennent
Perfect sois venu(e) sois venu(e) soit venu(e) soyons venu(e)s soyez venu(e)(s) soient venu(e)s
Imperfect vinsse vinsses vˆınt vinssions vinssiez vinssent
Pluperfect fusse venu(e) fusses venu(e) fˆ ut venu(e) fussions venu(e)s fussiez venu(e)(s) fussent venu(e)s
In a general way, not all forms of the subjunctive are observed. Many French speakers would not be aware that regarde in Il faut que je le regarde is a subjunctive form. Some of the forms of the present subjunctive of –er verbs are the same as those of the indicative, which is not the case in Spanish and Italian, and given that the overwhelming number of French verbs are of the –er ending type, it is little wonder that the French subjunctive is losing its prominence. It may be that there is a tendency for the subjunctive in the present tense to be particularly preserved with certain common verbs where the indicative and subjunctive forms are widely divergent, or the actual final sound is dissimilar. The third person of the indicative and subjunctive forms is: verb aller devoir
indicative va doit
subjunctive aille doive
Subjunctive mood
verb dire ´ecrire ˆetre faire falloir mettre prendre
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indicative dit ´ecrit est fait faut met prend
subjunctive dise ´ecrive soit fasse faille mette prenne
44.2 Sequence of tenses with the subjunctive in subordinate clauses As far as the sequence of tenses with the subjunctive in a subordinate clause is concerned, it is helpful to understand that R3 practice often differs from that of the other two register divisions. In broad terms, the practices may be characterized as follows: R3/R2/R1 il faut il faudra il a fallu
qu’elle vienne qu’elle vienne qu’elle vienne
je dois partir je suis all´ee me coucher mon p`ere ´etait parti nous avions d´ecid´e de partir
il fallait il fallut il faudrait
R3
R2 + R1
qu’il vˆınt qu’il vˆınt qu’il vˆınt
qu’il vienne qu’il vienne qu’il vienne
R3
R2 + R1
avant qu’elle (n’)arrive avant qu’elle (ne) soit arriv´ee avant qu’elle (n’)arrivˆ at avant qu’elle (ne) fˆ ut arriv´ee
avant qu’elle arrive avant qu’elle arrive avant qu’elle soit arriv´ee avant qu’elle soit arriv´ee
From the above lists it is clear that, in the spoken language, an imperfect or conditional main clause would be followed by a present subordinate subjunctive clause: Il fallait qu’il vienne. Similarly, a pluperfect main clause would be followed by a perfect subordinate subjunctive: Nous avions d´ecid´e de partir avant qu’elle soit arriv´ee. Strict adherence to an imperfect subordinate subjunctive would seem odd, unless used for jocular or ironic reasons, or in literary mode, and here, these days, it would only be used in the thirdperson singular.
44.3 A note on the imperfect subjunctive (subjonctif imparfait / imparfait du subjonctif ) It is clear that the imperfect subjunctive (together with its sister conjugation the pluperfect subjunctive) is to all intents and purposes unknown in R1 and R2 discourse; if it does occur, it is usually for jocular purposes or as
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a parody of more elevated usage. It survives in refined R3 usage, in speeches and stories, but even in these cases it is almost exclusively the third-person singular that is met these days (fˆ ut, fˆıt, mˆıt, etc.); the other forms are avoided and are replaced by the present subjunctive and, occasionally, the perfect subjunctive. It is, in reality, in polished prose writing that the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives most frequently occur. It seems quite legitimate therefore for foreign learners of French not to use them in speech, although they should be aware of their appropriateness in formal writing. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives have lost much of their former vigor, if one goes back in time to, say, Chateaubriand (early nineteenth century) and then further back to Rabelais (sixteenth century), when we compare their current use to their ubiquitous contemporary presence in Italian and Spanish. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives, as well as the present and perfect subjunctives, appear with as much constancy in these two other languages as the corresponding indicative tenses. There is no problem in Spanish to say and write que yo parase (that I should stop) or, in Italian, che io fermassi, but there is in the French que j’arrˆetasse. Whether this is because the sound of the asse in French appears rebarbative, grotesque, pejorative or just awkward is not clear (consider also parlasse, assassinassions, caillasse, rˆevasser, finasser, for instance), but it seems quite unjustified to argue that the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives are difficult to handle since they form a natural part of normal discourse in the other two Romance languages referred to, and we refer to all native speakers here. These two subjunctive forms cause bewilderment in many French speakers precisely because they have fallen into disuse. In this context, two references are called upon to the French speaker’s contemporary attitude to the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives, and these references underline both, on the one hand, a serious element and, on the other, a humorous and parodic approach. First, a Comit´e pour la r´ehabilitation et l’usage (dans le langage parl´e) du pass´e simple et de l’imparfait du subjonctif was established in the 1990s in France to defend and diffuse the use of these two tenses at a national level. The instigator of this courageous but zany move was Alain Bouissi`ere, nicknamed Monsieur plus-que-parfait, a whimsical and unorthodox embalmer (of corpses) who must have sensed the need for resuscitation, linguistically and corporally. The said committee, now defunct it appears, enjoyed monthly meetings to discuss any current topic with enthusiastic recourse to the two forms of the subjunctive in question. Such was the resounding initial success of these meetings that Bouissi`ere published Le bar du subjonctif in 1999. The second reference illustrates, doubtless more accurately, the true status of the two subjunctive tenses in contemporary France. We enter the realm of Ast´erix, which, far from representing an infantile attachment to lighthearted comedy, indulges in intelligent use of language and, notably, play on words, a preoccupation greatly appreciated by an adult readership. Suffice it to quote the names of three Roman generals: Claudius Quiquilfus
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Gracchus Quiquilfus (both in Les lauriers de C´esar), and Encorutilfalluquejelesus (in Le tour de Gaule). Goscinny, author of the dialogues, plays with the endings of the subjunctive, adapting them to his burlesque aims. The –fus derives from fusse (from ˆetre) which is to be interpreted as a change from the third-person fˆ ut, while the –sus derives from susse (from savoir). The –util– in the middle of the third concocted name recalls eˆ ut. Adult readers instructed in the traditional use of the now abstruse forms of the subjunctive are sensitive to these playful nuances. The imperfect subjunctive3 with the meaning of even if is used in conditional clauses. This is of high-register value, not really to be copied, and recalls literary practice of the nineteenth century and further back. The verbs avoir, ˆetre, devoir and vouloir, are most prevalent here, and inversion of pronoun or noun is the norm: Were I confronted by death I would not hesitate. Even if I had to give away half my fortune, I would still be happy.
Fuss´e-je devant la mort, je n’h´esiterais pas. Duss´e-je donner la moiti´e de ma fortune, je serais toujours heureux. Eˆ ut-il seulement quinze ans il serait militaire. Le danger fˆ ut-il encore plus menac¸ant. . .
Even if he were only fifteen years of age, he would be a soldier. Even if the danger were more threatening. . .
Likewise, the pluperfect subjunctive appears in the elevated literary mode. Instead of: Si elle m’avait donn´e l’argent, je l’aurais achet´e (If she had given me the money, I would have bought it) one could read (but not hear): Si elle m’eˆ ut donn´e l’argent, je l’eusse achet´e. It serves little purpose to labor over this construction since it is outmoded and is reminiscent of distant, bygone practices. However, one does come across the third-person singular in contemporary written style, even in newspapers: On eˆ ut dit que les pluies torrentielles annonc¸aient la fin du monde (It appeared that the torrential rains were announcing the ending of the world as a replacement for: On aurait dit que).
44.4 “Black and white” subjunctive The subjunctive occurs regularly in the following circumstances: In certain archaic or set expressions: Advienne que pourra. Vive le roi ! 3
Come what may. Long live the king!
The use of the imperfect subjunctive is perfectly normal in all registers in Italian and Spanish, and one wonders again over the disappearance of this construction from common French discourse. The same observation applies to the pluperfect subjunctive immediately below.
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Vive(nt) les Qu´ebequois ! Puiss´e-je trouver le bonheur ! N’ayez crainte / N’aie crainte. Sachez que. . . Grand bien vous fasse ! Ainsi soit-il. Coˆ ute que coˆ ute `. . . N’en d´eplaise a Fasse le ciel que. . . Dieu te b´enisse ! Dieu soit lou´e ! ` Dieu ne plaise ! A
Long live the inhabitants of Quebec! Oh, that I may find happiness! Fear not. Be aware that. . . Much good may it do you! Amen (So be it – after a prayer) At all costs, Come what may With all due respect to. . . / If you have no objection. . . Would to God that. . . God bless you! God be praised! God forbid!
At the beginning of a sentence to indicate surprise, an order or a desire: Que j’aille trouver un taxi ? Certainement pas ! Que Marie sorte maintenant. ` ce Que Monsieur nous ´ecrive a sujet.
Me go to find a taxi? Certainly not! Let/Make Marie go out now. Ask the gentleman to write to us about it.
To mark a hypothesis or conditional value: Que Philippe reste ou qu’il parte, ¸ca m’est ´egal. Ne fˆ ut-ce que pour une journ´ee. . .
Whether Philippe stays or goes is the same to me. If it were only for a day. . .
When a noun clause introduced by que precedes the main clause (this usage is limited to R3 discourse): Qu’il fasse beau demain est certain. Qu’il y eˆ ut beaucoup de spectateurs tout le monde en est convenu.
That it will be fine tomorrow is certain. That there were many spectators everyone agreed.
To express the pronouns whatever, whoever, the adjectives however, whatever and wherever: qui que vous soyez quoi qu’il arrive o` u que tu ailles quelle que soit votre intention ` quelque distance que cela a paraisse
whoever you are whatever happens wherever you go whatever your intention is however far that appears
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si grand soit-il (R3) / si grand qu’il soit pour grand qu’il soit aussi longtemps que vous travailliez
however tall he is however tall he is however long you work
Note: the use of si for however + adjective is more common than quelque/ pour + adjective. After the following conjunctive or adverbial expressions: Conjunctive expression ` condition que a afin que ` moins que a
Meaning on condition that in order that unless
apr`es que
after
` supposer supposing that a que / suppos´e que assez + = adjective + adjective enough + to + que
Comments R2 + R3 R2 + R3 In R3 usage, an expletive ne is often inserted before the verb. This usage is a residue of the Latin ` moins negative idea of ut, e.g., a qu’elle ne vienne ce soir. See avant que below. Logic and tradition require an indicative tense after apr`es que when referring to a past event. However, increasingly, and even prevailing usage, but contrary to grammarians’ precepts, apr`es que takes the subjunctive when it refers to the past (but not to the future): apr`es qu’elle soit arriv´ee, elle m’a dit. . . There is often confusion between the past anterior and the imperfect subjunctive after apr`es que in written French, e.g., apr`es qu’elle fˆ ut arriv´ee instead of apr`es qu’elle fut arriv´ee: this latter form is the recommended one.
Les fr`eres Karamazov n’est pas assez facile pour que je le lise sans l’aide de mon prof.
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Conjunctive expression aussi/tout/pour + adjective + que avant que
Meaning however + adjective + verb before
bien que
although
de crainte que
for fear that, lest
` de fac¸on que / a ce que
so that
de mani`ere ` ce que que / a de sorte que
so that
en attendant que
so that waiting for (someone to do something)
Comments Aussi/tout riche qu’il paraisse; Pour simple que cela paraisse In R3 usage, an expletive ne is often inserted before the verb, e.g., Pourquoi lui as-tu offert le cadeau avant que l’on ne soit ` moins que above. arriv´e ? See a Has the same value as quoique: Bien qu’il ait raison. . . In R3 usage, an expletive ne is often inserted before the verb: J’ai envoy´e le paquet il y a quinze jours de crainte qu’il n’arrive trop ` tard. See also avant que and a moins que; the same reference to Latin applies here. ` ce It is only when de fac¸on que / a que expresses intention that it is followed by the subjunctive mood: Il faut revenir de fac¸on ` ce qu’elle te voie. When qu’elle / a it expresses result, the indicative mood is needed: Elle est revenue de fac¸on que je l’ai vue. It appears that the newer form ` ce que is superseding de fac¸on a the older traditional form de fac¸on que, but this is far from clear. Certainly this latter form is lighter and less clumsy. De ` ce que is less used when fac¸on a pointing to result. ` See comments on de fac¸on que / a ce que. ` See comments on de fac¸on que / a ce que.
Subjunctive mood
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Conjunctive expression encore que
Meaning although
jusqu’` a ce que
until
loin que
far from
malgr´e que
although
moyennant que (R3) non (pas) que (pour) autant que pour peu que
by means of which not that inasmuch as however, if
pour que
in order that
pourvu que que. . . que
provided that either. . . or
Comments R3; the indicative has been possible here but does not seem to be in current use. The standard requirement here is the subjunctive in all tenses. This is understandable with reference to the present or future but has no logic with respect to a completed event. Prevailing usage requires the subjunctive, e.g., Attends-moi jusqu’` a ce que je vienne; but Hanse and Blampain state that the indicative is correct. R3; Loin que je comprenne son allemand, il pourrait parler japonais et ce ne serait pas diff´erent. Incurs condemnation by the purists but is in vigorous current use. Je suis preneur moyennant qu’il fasse beau demain. R3 R3 R3; Pour peu qu’il ait bu, il nous racontera l’histoire de sa vie (If he’s had any drink at all he will tell us his life story). Of a slightly lower register than afin que. Has the same value as soit que. . . soit que: Qu’elle vienne maintenant qu’elle vienne plus tard, ¸ca m’est ´egal. 4
The subjunctive also occurs in R3 usage in the second of a set of coordinated conditional clauses when que is used instead of si: Si la pluie cesse et qu’il fasse beau demain (If the rain stops and it is fine tomorrow); but not when the second clause is introduced by si: Si la pluie cesse et s’il fait beau demain.
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Conjunctive expression quoique5 sans que
soit que. . . soit que sous r´eserve que trop + adjective + que
Meaning although without
either. . . or with the reservation that too + adjective + to
Comments Has the same value as bien que. St´ephanie a fait ses devoirs sans que j’insiste (St´ephanie did her homework without my insisting). Soit que tu le fasses maintenant soit que tu le fasses plus tard. . . R3
Michel est trop jeune pour que je lui enseigne l’arabe.
In clauses dependent upon verbs and expressions indicating desiring, wishing, begging, ordering, forbidding, preventing: aimer mieux, atten` ce que (to expect), commander (R3), consentir (R3), crier, dre, s’attendre a d´ecr´eter (R3), d´efendre, demander (R3), d´esesp´erer (R3), d´esirer, dire (R3), empˆecher, entendre (R3 = with meaning of to intend: J’entends que tu le a ce que), implorer (R3), fasses ce soir), ´eviter (R3),6 exiger, faire attention (` insister (pour que), interdire, s’opposer (` a ce que), nier, ordonner, pr´ef´erer, prier (R3), proposer, recommander, se r´ejouir (to rejoice: Je me r´ejouis que le r´esultat soit si favorable), souhaiter, supplier (R3), tenir (` a ce que = to be keen that: Je ` ce que tu viennes tout de suite), veiller (` tiens a a ce que = to see to it that), vouloir. To be noted also is that if the subject is the same in the main and subordinate clauses, an infinitive must be used: J’aime mieux partir demain; Marie insiste pour pr´eparer le repas tout de suite; C´eline souhaite aller au cin´ema. The verb souhaiter requires further comment. It seems to be unique in the sense that it may be followed by a subjunctive or an infinitive when the 5
6
When the following expressions refer to a future or conditional event or idea, a future or conditional indicative may be used, particularly in the spoken language, although there is considerable uneasiness here among grammarians (this remark does not suggest a recommendation for the use of the indicative in these cases, but is merely an observation): bien que, encore que, malgr´e que, quoique, e.g., Bien que je ne pourrai pas (puisse preferred) venir, Laurent s’en occupera; Quoique tu as (aies preferred) d´ej` a lu le livre, il faut le relire. The verbs empˆecher and ´eviter, when used in R3 language, frequently lead to the expletive ne in the subordinate clause: J’ai tout fait pour empˆecher que les mari´es ne se s´eparent; Tˆ ache d’´eviter qu’ils ne s’en aillent tout de suite. However, when an interrogative or negative main clause precedes, the ne is hardly ever used: Je n’ai pu ´eviter qu’elle parte; Leur fr`ere ne pouvait pas empˆecher que Jeanne aille directement a ` la banque. The set expression (il) n’empˆeche que is always followed by the indicative: (Il) n’empˆeche que Pierre a tort / que Marie serait la bienvenue.
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subject in the main and subordinate clauses is different. It makes no difference if the indirect object is a pronoun, a noun, or the name of a person: Je souhaite que Pierre revienne tˆot; Je lui souhaite de revenir tˆot; Le Pr´esident a souhait´e ` tous les convives de passer une agr´eable soir´ee; Je souhaitais a ` Jean d’y r´eussir. a In clauses dependent upon verbs and expressions indicating the feeling of joy, fear, regret, unhappiness:
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Verbs and expressions of feeling appr´ehender
Meaning to apprehend
avoir hˆ ate avoir peur
to be anxious to be afraid
craindre
to fear
d´esesp´erer
to despair
s’´etonner se fˆ acher se f´eliciter s’indigner se plaindre redouter
to be surprised to be angry to be happy/ pleased to be indignant to complain to dread
refuser trembler7
to refuse to be terrified
Comments In R3 usage, the expletive ne is sometimes inserted before the verb in the subjunctive; see also immediately above. In R3 usage, the expletive ne is sometimes inserted before the verb in the subjunctive; see also immediately above. In R3 usage the expletive ne is sometimes inserted before the verb in the subjunctive; see also immediately above. The expletive ne may appear after the negative: Je ne d´esesp`ere pas que Sophie (ne) r´eussisse.
In R3 usage, ne is sometimes inserted before the verb in the subjunctive; see also immediately above. Jean refuse que je lui vienne en aide. In R3 usage, ne is sometimes inserted before the verb in the subjunctive; see also immediately above.
With the verbs appr´ehender, avoir peur, craindre, redouter and trembler, the ne would not be used if the main verb is in the negative: Je ne crains pas qu’il parte (I do not fear that he is leaving). This expletive ne is not to be confused with the full negative ne . . . pas: Je crains qu’il ne vienne pas (I fear he is not coming).
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The impersonal use of some verbs like choquer, ´etonner, surprendre, tarder, and of verbal expressions like cela me fait de la peine, falls into this category: Cela me choque qu’il se conduise de la sorte. Cela m’´etonne qu’elle ait d´ecroch´e l’agr´eg. Il me tarde que ce travail prenne fin. Cela me fait de la peine que Laurent soit malade. Cela me fait plaisir que Jeanne vienne demain.
I am shocked he behaves like that. I am surprised she’s got the agr´egation. I am longing for this work to end. I am sorry Laurent is ill. I am delighted that Jeanne is coming tomorrow.
With the verb ˆetre + adjectives expressing feeling: Adjective choqu´e content d´esol´e ´etonn´e fˆ ach´e heureux fier
Meaning shocked happy sorry, disappointed surprised angry happy proud
Je suis choqu´ee que Fr´ed´eric se soit comport´e de la sorte. Je suis d´esol´e/m´econtent/triste que les deux fr`eres se soient bagarr´es. Ir`ene est ´etonn´ee/surprise que l’´epreuve ait ´et´e si facile. Maman est tellement fi`ere que Jeanne ait remport´e le meilleur prix.
Adjective honteux m´econtent ravi satisfait surpris triste
Meaning shameful unhappy delighted contented/satisfied surprised sad
I am shocked that Fr´ed´eric should have behaved like that. I am sorry/unhappy/sad that the two brothers had a fight. Ir`ene is surprised that the test was so easy. Mom is so proud that Jeanne has carried off the best prize.
Similarly with the neuter il: Il est honteux que les ´el`eves aient chahut´e la prof. Il/C’est agac¸ant/embˆetant qu’ils fassent tant de bruit.
It is shameful that the pupils should have played up the teacher. It’s annoying that they make so much noise.
One would also use the subjunctive with a whole range of adjectives expressing similar types of emotion: Il est abasourdi/ahuri/avantageux/ d´econcertant/´ebahi/favorable/scandaleux/d´egoˆ utant/immoral/stup´efait/stup´efi´e.
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In clauses dependent upon verbs and expressions indicating denial, doubt, evaluation, judgment, impossibility, necessity, possibility: ` ce que il y a avantage + a ` ce il y a int´erˆet / tu as int´erˆet + a que ` ce que il y a opportunit´e + a avoir besoin (R1) convenir d´ementir (R3) c’est/il est dommage ce n’est pas douter ignorer (R3) nier il faut il importe (R3) peu importe il s’en faut de peu ce n’est pas la peine il semble/semblerait
there is an advantage in there is interest / you have interest in there is an opportunity in to need to suit, to be fitting to belie/deny it’s a pity it is not that to doubt not to know to deny I/you, etc. have to it is necessary it does not matter almost it is not worth it seems / would seem
Il me semble/semblerait que (i.e. sembler + indirect object) is always followed by the indicative since the indirect object me suggests some precision, as would il lui/leur semble. However, the negative form, il ne me semble pas que, would very easily take the subjunctive, the negative implying less precision. The subjunctive would also be required with expressions such as Il semble important/imp´eratif que. supporter
to put up with
Note that this verb, when used in the negative, takes the subjunctive: Je ne supporte pas que les manifestants cassent toutes ces vitres.
I can’t stand the demonstrators breaking all those windows.
It also does when followed by certain adverbs: Je supporte difficilement que les ` quatre enfants se r´eveillent a heures du matin. Je supporte facilement que l’on ne mange pas avant neuf heures du soir.
I have difficulty putting up with the children waking up at four. I can easily put up with not eating before nine in the evening.
Into this category fall a good number of adjectives preceded by ˆetre (il est + adjective + que + subjunctive), especially when a negative is involved: Il est bizarre / bon / contradictoire / curieux / douteux / essentiel / exclu / extraordinaire /
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imp´eratif / important / impossible / improbable / inadmissible / in´evitable / juste / l´egitime (R3) / naturel / n´ecessaire / opportun (R3) / paradoxal / peu probable8 / possible / pr´ef´erable / rare / remarquable / significatif / temps (here a noun). Il est inadmissible que le proviseur l’ait puni pour une telle erreur; Il est rare que Lucile revienne tard; Il est remarquable que tous se soient tromp´es; Il est significatif qu’ils ne vous aient pas attendus; Il n’est pas vraisemblable que S´ebastien s’en soit aperc¸u. In clauses dependent upon a superlative formed with plus or moins: C’est le livre le plus comique que j’aie jamais lu. C’est le garc¸on le plus intelligent que je connaisse. C’est le moins que je puisse dire.
It’s the funniest book I’ve ever read. He’s the most intelligent boy I know. That’s the least I can say.
In speech and even in writing, the subjunctive is not always observed in this construction. A good percentage of French speakers would easily use ai instead of aie and connais instead of connaisse. This would be R1 style. In clauses dependent upon verbs and expressions indicating chance: risquer il arrive que il est fr´equent que il n’y a aucune chance que / pour que il y a de grandes/fortes chances que / pour que c’est une chance que il y a le danger que c’est un hasard que Michel risque que son nom soit oubli´e au moment des r´ecompenses. Il arrive assez souvent qu’elle soit en retard.
to risk it happens that it often happens that there is no chance that it is very likely that there is a chance that there is the danger that there is the chance that There is a risk that Michel’s name be forgotten when rewards are given out. It happens quite often that she is late.
But with an indirect object: Il lui arrive d’ˆetre en retard. C’est une chance que Marie soit l` a. 8
She is sometimes late. There is a chance that Marie be there.
In most cases, il est probable is followed by the indicative, given the increased certainty it suggests.
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When faire is used with a subordinate clause that is non-valid´e or nonsubstantiated, a subjunctive is required. A quotation from the Romantic writer Senancour’s Obermann (1904, letter 90), illustrates this: “L’homme est p´erissable. Il se peut ; mais p´erissons en r´esistant, et si le n´eant nous est r´eserv´e, ne faisons pas que ce soit une justice.”
Man is perishable. That is possible, but let us resist this perishable possibility, and if nothingness awaits us, let us not act in such a way that it will be an injustice.
However, when the subordinate clause is valid´e or substantiated, an indicative is needed: Jean a rat´e le train, ce qui fait qu’il est rentr´e tr`es tard.
Jean missed the train, which meant that he arrived home late.
44.5 “Gray” subjunctive As stated on more than one occasion, the use of the subjunctive frequently corresponds to a higher register of language, particularly when there is a choice between the subjunctive and the indicative. R3 users may introduce subtle shades of meaning and a touch of elegance into their French by a discreet balancing and contrasting of indicatives and subjunctives, the latter being used to imply a subjective attitude to what is being said, the former to convey concrete facts. An R2/R1 speaker could easily say and write in a soccer context: C’est la derni`ere partie de foot que j’ai vue.
It’s the last soccer game I’ve seen.
A theatergoer or student of a play would say and write in more sophisticated language: C’est la derni`ere pi`ece de ´ Tchechov que j’aie vue / j’aie a ´etudier.
It’s the last Chekov play I’ve see seen / I have to study now.
It goes without saying that the pronunciation of ai and aie is the same. It is often what precedes the verb followed by the subordinate clause that determines the use of the subjunctive. In the following cases, an element of doubt is present, which triggers the subjunctive for R3 users: Je ne puis m’imaginer que Sophie ait tenu sa promesse. Je suis loin d’esp´erer que C´eline revienne.
I can’t imagine that Sophie has kept her promise. I am far from hoping C´eline will come back.
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Je n’ai pas l’impression que Pierre soit convaincu. Je refuse de croire que l’accus´ee soit coupable. ` croire qu’elle soit J’ai du mal a Anglaise.
I don’t have the impression Pierre is convinced. I refuse to believe the accused is guilty. I have difficulty believing she is English.
In clauses dependent upon a superlative and similar expressions (e.g., dernier, premier, seul, ne . . . que, unique – these latter expressions may be considered as superlatives since they express uniqueness), the subjunctive use points to an elegance of style which is often the mark of the subjunctive where discretion is available: R1 + R2
R2 + R3
C’est la premi`ere/derni`ere athl`ete qui a couru le cent m`etres en 10,7 (dix secondes virgule sept). C’est le meilleur/pire ´el`eve que je connais. Il n’y a que mon p`ere qui le fait.
C’est la derni`ere athl`ete qui ait couru le cent m`etres en 10,7. C’est le meilleur/pire ´el`eve que je connaisse. Il n’ya que mon p`ere qui le fasse.
A play on words with the commercial for Maille mustard produces the following: Il n’y a que Maille qui m’aille (Only Maille mustard suits me). C’est le seul de mes coll`egues avec qui je me suis vraiment li´e d’amiti´e.
C’est le seul de mes coll`egues avec qui je me sois vraiment li´e d’amiti´e.
Franc¸oise Giroud translates Einstein’s eulogy of Marie Curie in the following way: “La seule personne que la gloire n’ait pas corrompue” (1981, p. 7). This group would also include the adjective rare, which similarly highlights uniqueness, as in: R1 + R2
R2 + R3
C’est un des rares aventuriers qui ont travers´e ce d´esert.
C’est un des rares aventuriers qui aient travers´e ce d´esert.
Note that after expressions involving fois (premi`ere/derni`ere/seule fois), the indicative is used with the present or imperfect tense: C’est la premi`ere fois que je te vois ici. C’´etait la premi`ere fois que je la voyais l` a.
It’s the first time I’ve seen you here. It was the first time I’d seen her there.
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The subjuctive can occur in clauses dependent upon a negative or indefinite antecedent: R1 + R2
R2 + R3
Il n’y a personne qui peut r´eparer ma radio. Il n’y a rien qui est plus difficile que les maths. Il n’y a aucune mati`ere que Franc¸oise ne comprend pas. Ce n’est pas un homme qui te prend au s´erieux. ` la hauteur. Il faut quelqu’un qui est a Je pr´ef`ere/pr´ef´erais quelque chose qui est/´etait plus sucr´e. J’ai besoin d’un homme qui peut garantir le succ`es. Pierre d´esire une situation qui lui plaˆıt. Trouve-moi l’adresse d’une infirmi`ere qui sait faire la piqˆ ure.
Il n’y a personne qui puisse r´eparer ma radio. Il n’y a rien qui soit plus diffcile que les maths. Il n’y a aucune mati`ere que Franc¸oise ne comprenne pas. Ce n’est pas un homme qui te prenne au s´erieux. ` la hauteur. Il faut quelqu’un qui soit a Je pr´ef`ere quelque chose qui soit plus sucr´e. J’ai besoin d’un homme qui puisse garantir le succ`es. Pierre d´esire une situation qui lui plaise. Trouve-moi l’adresse d’une infirmi`ere qui sache faire la piqˆ ure.
It goes without saying that if, in the last example, the definite article were used, a subjunctive would not occur, given the precise nature of the knowledge, so that only Trouve-moi le m´edecin qui sait would apply. The subjunctive can occur in clauses dependent upon expressions denying and questioning probability and certainty: R1 + R2
R2 + R3
Il n’est pas certain que S´ebastien viendra. Est-il certain que S´ebastien viendra ? Il n’est pas sˆ ur que Jeanne est rentr´ee. Il n’est pas clair que Philippe a r´eussi. Est-il clair que Philippe a r´eussi ?
Il n’est pas certain que S´ebastien vienne. Est-il certain que S´ebastien vienne ? Il n’est pas sˆ ur que Jeanne soit rentr´ee. Il n’est pas clair que Philippe ait r´eussi. Est-il clair que Philippe ait r´eussi ?
Similarly with the adjectives ´evident, exact, incertain, improbable, probable, sˆ ur, vrai, vraisemblable and even, in very high register, incontestable, ind´eniable, indiscutable, in´evitable, infaillible. Note that the above subordinate clauses are introduced by the conjunction que. When the subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction si, only the indicative occurs: Il n’est pas sˆ ur si Pierre est rentr´e. Under this heading are the expressions related to doubt,
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even if this doubt is negated in some way. In other words, even if there is no doubt whatsoever, the mere use of doute implies the subjunctive: Il n’y a pas de doute que / Il ne fait pas de doute que / Il n’est pas douteux que. Some would plead, however, for the possibility of the indicative here, including Hanse and Blampain. The subjunctive can occur in clauses dependent upon verbs of thinking and declaring in the interrogative and/or negative: accepter, admettre, affirmer, assurer, comprendre, concevoir, convaincre, croire, d´eclarer, dire, envisager, expliquer, garantir, insister, penser, pr´etendre. Elegance of style is very conspicuous here: Je n’accepte pas que l’avocat le d´efende. Je ne comprends pas que Laurent ait commis une telle erreur. Pierre ne dit pas que son fr`ere ait raison. Comment peux-tu pr´etendre que ce soit le r´esultat voulu?
I do not accept that the lawyer defend him. I can’t understand that Laurent should have made such an error. Pierre does not say his brother is right. How can you claim this is the desired result?
In R3 language many of these verbs may be used positively, with no sense of doubt through negation or questioning: J’admets que tu aies raison. Je comprends que tu veuilles partir.
I admit you are right. I understand that you wish to leave.
The subjunctive can occur in clauses dependent upon expressions of the following type, often involving nouns. These expressions are very frequently connected to verbs that appear earlier in this chapter: Le but / le dessein / l’intention est que. . . Il se fait que / ce qui fait que. . . L’id´ee que. . . Il se trouve que. . . esp´erer (R1) pr´evoir Le fait que cette ´etudiante soit plus intelligente n’est pas surprenant. ` L’id´ee qu’ils aillent au cin´ema a minuit me paraˆıt folle. Le tableau est tr`es sombre, ce qui fait que le public s’y soit moins int´eress´e.
The aim/intention is that. . . It happens that / which means that. . . The idea that. . . It happens that. . . to hope to foresee The fact that this student is more intelligent is not surprising. The idea that they should go to the movies at midnight seems mad to me. The painting is very dark, which meant that the public is less interested in it.
Subjunctive mood
Le gouvernement pr´evoit que l’´economie fasse un bond en avant.
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The government intends that the economy will leap forward.
In all these cases, the indicative would be quite acceptable. Some uncertainty exists over usage with esp´erer. Esp´erer used affirmatively requires the indicative in standard French but, in colloquial language, one can come across the subjunctive: J’esp`ere qu’elle vienne. At the same time, the negative form of this verb could easily lead to the subjunctive in R3 style: Je n’esp`ere nullement que mes coll`egues lui fassent confiance.
In no way do I expect my colleagues to place their trust in her/him.
Other forms of esp´erer could also lead to the subjunctive: J’aurais esp´er´e que ma m`ere ait les billets. ` esp´erer que les Il faut / est a statistiques soient correctes.
I would have hoped that my mother had the tickets. We must hope / It is to b